Plants and Humans Exam 2

Photosynthesis

How plants use sunlight to make food for themselves.

Cellular Respiration

Take the energy stored in glucose bonds and convert it to a form of cellular energy the plant can use.

Photosynthesis Formula

6Cog+6H2O+Sunlight→ C6H12O6 +6O2

^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^

(reactions). (products).

Photosynthesis occurs in ______

The chloroplasts of leaf cells

Pigments

Substance that gives off a color due to light absorption and reflection.

Chlorophyll a

Main pigment for photosynthesis, absorbs in the red and blue areas of the light spectrum.

Chlorophyll b

Absorbs in the red, blue, and orange areas of the light spectrum.

Carotenoids

Absorb in the blue - green and violet areas of the light spectrum.

Chloroplasts

-Plastids

-Double membrane

-Granum (single stack of thylakoids)

-Thylakoid (quarter- shaped disc)

-Stroma (fluid within the chloroplast)

Photosynthesis Parts

1.) Light - Dependent Reactions

2.) Light - Independent Reactions/ Calvin Cycle

Light - Dependent Reactions/ Stage

-Light splits water to produce oxygen

-Form ATP

-Occurs in the thylakoids

Light - Independent Reactions / Calvin Cycle

-Occurs in the stroma

-Forms sugars

-Carbon Dioxide (co2) entry into the leaves

Cellular Respiration

-Take the chemical energy stored in the bonds of glucose and break those bonds to produce ATP.

ATP

-Adenosine triphosphate.

-Cells energy currency.

Cellular Respiration Formula

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

^. ^ ^ ^

[glucose]. [oxygen]. [carb d]. [water]

[REACTANTS].           [PRODUCTS].

Most of cellular respiration occurs in the _______

Mitochondrion

Mitochondrion

-Double membraned.

-Cristae → folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane.

-Mitochondrial Matrix → innermost compartment of the mitochondrion (contains a fluid).

Types of Cellular Respiration

1.) Aerobic → requires oxygen.

2.) Anaerobic → does not require oxygen.

Steps of Cellular Respiration

1.) Glycolysis → Sugar splitting

-glucose is split into 2 molecules of pyruvate .

-occurs in the cytosol.

Intermediate Step

Conversion of 2 pyruvate molecules into 2 molecules of acetyl coenzyme A.

(Intermediate Step) 2. Citric Acid / Krebs Cycle

-occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.

-glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide.

-requires oxygen.

(Intermediate Step) 3. Electron Transport Chain

-occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

-requires oxygen.

-produces most of the ATP.

1.) Perception —> 2.) Information —> 3.) Response.

A.) External Transfer Action Taken

Environment

B.) Internal Hormones

Plant Body

Stimulus

Something that happens that causes an activity.

Statocyte 

Gravity-sensing cells in the root.

Statoliths

Starch grains within statocytes.

Information Transfer

1.) Auxin- Apical dominance, cell elongation, cell suppression.

2.) Cytokinin- Activates cell division, dormant buds.

3.) Abscisic Acid- Involved in stress responses.

4.) Gibberellin- Seed germination.

5.) Ethylene- Fruit ripening.

Seed Germination

1.) The embryo inside the seed takes in water and begins to swell.

2.) The embryo produces gibberellin, which moves into the aleurore layer. Enzymes are produced.

3.) The enzymes move into the endosperm.

4.) The enzymes digest the endosperm to provide nutrients for the embryo.

Plant responses

1.) Tropic Responses

• permanent.

• growth associated with a stimulus.

• positive —> toward the stimulus.

• negative —> away from the stimulus.

• angle.

2.) Nastic Response

• temporary.

• non growth response NOT associated with stimulus.

3.) Morphogenic Response

• change in the development or quality of a plant.

4.) All - or - None Response (either have a response or you don’t)

• requires the certain meeting of a threshold.

• Ex: Venus Flytrap

5.) Dosage Dependent Response

• The dose affects the response.

Etiolation

Differnces in plant development when seedings are exposed to darkness. 

• Etiolated seedling 

• not as big

• smaller leaves

• beige/tan color

• longer internodes (stringy)

• apical hook

1.) P______ 2.) I___________ 3.) R__________

1.) Perception 2.) Information Transfer 3.) Response

Hormones → chemical messengers → small amounts produced → big effect.

Phototropism

• Plants bending towards the light.

• First studied in oat tips.

Gravitropism

• Roots of plants bending downwards toward gravity.

Apical Dominance

• terminal bud (at the tip of the plant) produces auxin to slow the growth of axillary buds.

Ethylene

• Associated with fruit ripening.

• Climacteric Fruits - involves ethylene.

• Non - Climacteric Fruits - little or no involvement of ethylene.

Two types of reproduction

Asexual and Sexual

Asexual advantages

Quicker because one point is involved.

Asexual disadvantages

No genetic diversity.

Sexual advantages

Genetic diversity.

Sexual disadvantages

Slower because two parents are involved.

Asexual reproduction

Vegetative propagation in plants.

Cell Cycle 

The life cycle of the cell from one division to the next division.

1.) Interphase -

2.) Cell/ Nuclear Division -

3.) Cytokinesis -

• Interphase - Cell grows and copies its DNA.

• Cell / Nuclear Division - Divide the DNA.

• Cytokinesis - Division of the Cytoplasm.

The main pigment of photosynthesis ____

Chlorophyll a

_____ plant hormone involved in seed germination

Gibberellin

True or False. Carbon dioxide is a reactant of cellular respiration.

False, it is a product

Interphase

• Longest part of the cell cycle

• G1(gap 1), S (synthesis), and G2 (gap 2)

• G1 → Cell growth, last preparations before cell / nuclear division.

• S → Copies DNA

• G2 → Cell growth, last preparations before cell / nuclear division.

Cell / Nuclear Division

• 2 options ( mitosis or meiosis ).

• mitosis→ occurs in body cells.

• → associated with asexual reproduction.

• → PMAT ( prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).

Cytokinesis

• Division of the cytoplasm

DNA Terms

• Chromatin - DNA and protein.

• Chromosome - Condensed chromatin.

• Sister chromatids - Duplicated chromosomes.

• Diploid - Two complete sets of chromosomes.

• Haploid - One complete set of chromosomes.

Cell Cycle

1.) Interphase

• DNA is in it’s chromatin form.

• G1 → Cell growth, makes proteins.

• S → DNA copies.

• G2 → Cell growth, last preparations before cell / nuclear division.

2.) Cell / Nuclear Division (mitosis)

A - Prophase

• Nucleolus breaks down.

• Nuclear envelope degrades.

• The spindle begins forming.

• Chromatin has condensed so sister chromatids are visible.

B - Metaphase

• Sister chromatids attach to the spindle and line up in the middle of the cell.

C - Anaphase

• Spindle fibers pull apart the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. They are now called chromosomes.

D - Telophase 

• Nuclear envelopes reappear. 

• Nucleoli reappear.

• The spindle has broken down.

• DNA has unraveled back into chromatin.

3.) Cytokinesis 

• Division of the cytoplasm.

• A cell plate forms to separate the plant cell into two separate daughter cells.

Meiosis

• Occurs in reproductive cells.

• Decrease the number of chromosomes by half.

• Associated with sexual reproduction.

• 2 parts → meiosis I and meiosis II.

Cell Cycle

• G1

• S

• G2

Alteration of Generations

Switch between a gametophyte generation and a sporophyte generation.

Gametophyte’s produce ____

Gametes

Sporophyte’s produce _____

Spores

Phase where homologous chromsomes seperate

Anaphase I

Population

Individuals of the same species living in the same place at the same time.

Population genetics

Study of how the frequency of alleles ( forms of a gene ) change over time.

Genepool

All of the alleles for all of the individuals in the population.

Factors that can change the gene pool.

1.) Genetic Drift

• Random change in allele frequency.

• More common in small populations.

2.) Artificial Selection 

• Change in the allele frequency due to human choices.

3.) Natural Selection

• Overproduction- more offspring are produced than can survive.

• Variation- All organisms cannot have have the same alleles.

• Competition- Limited resources in the environment.

• Survival of the fittest- Organisms with a beneficial trait are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on that beneficial trait to offspring.

Species

Organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

Speciation

Process of new species development.

Divergent Evolution

Share a common ancestor but evolved into different species.

Convergent Evolution

Nature chooses a trait in different species without a common ancestor but live in the same type of habitat.

Adaptive Radiation

Quick divergence of one species into many species.

Taxonomy

( Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup )

• Highest Domain → Eukarya

Kingdom → Animalia

Phylum → Chordata

Class → Mammalia

Order → Primates

Family → Mominidae

Genus → Homo

• Lowest Species → Sapiens

3 Domains                        6 Kingdoms

Bacteria  →  → → →  →  Eubacteria

Archaea → → → → → → Archeabacteria 

Eukarya → → → → → → Plantae  

                → → → → → → Animalia 

               → → → → → → Protista 

               → → → → → → Fungi         

Phylogenetic tree

Diagram that shows evolutionary relationships / relatedness.

Cladograms

Diagram that shows the development of characteristics using branches.

Allopatric Speciation

Involves a geographic barrier.

Sympatric Speciation

Does not involve a geographic barrier, speciation occurs with the species remaining in the same place.