The French Revolution

History- Chapter 1

Why did the king of France find an empty treasury?

• Long years of war had drained the financial

resources of France.

• the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles was very high

• Under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their

  independence from the common enemy, Britain. The war added more than a billion livres to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres.

• Lenders who gave the state credit, now began to charge

  10 per cent interest on loans.

• Subsistence Crisis

How was the French society organized during the Old Regime?

• Peasants made up about 90 per cent of the population. However, only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated

• About 60 per cent of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate. The members of the first two estates, that is, the clergy and the nobility, enjoyed certain privileges by birth. The most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the state. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants. Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord – to work in his house and fields – to serve in the army or to participate in building roads.

What were the different types of taxes paid by the Third Estate?

• Tithe- A tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce

• Taille- Tax to be paid directly to the state(direct tax)

• Indirect taxes- taxes which were levied on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco

• The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne

  by the third estate alone.

What was subsistence crisis and why did it occur?

Subsistence crisis – An extreme situation where

the basic means of livelihood are endangered

• The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789

• This led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand.

• So the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly.

• Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich widened.

• Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest.

• This led to a subsistence crisis, something that occurred frequently in France during the Old Regime

What was the role of philospohers in France?

• John Locke- wrote a book called ‘Two Treatises of Government’. In this book he sought to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch

• Rousseau- wrote a book called ‘The Social Contract‘. In this book he proposes a

  form of government based on a social contract between people and their representatives.

• Montesquieu- wrote a book called ‘ The Spirit of Law’. In this book he proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. This model of government was put into force in the USA, after the thirteen colonies declared their independence from Britain. (The American

  constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important example for political thinkers in France.)

How were the ideas of philosophers spread among people?

The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. These were frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of those who could not read and write.

What was the seating arrangement during the meeting of the Estates General?

• On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes.

• A resplendent hall in Versailles was prepared to host the delegates.

• The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, who were seated in rows facing each other on two sides, while the 600 members of the third estate had to stand at the back.

• The third estate was represented by its more prosperous and educated members. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly. However, their grievances and demands were listed in some 40,000 letters which the representatives had brought with them.

What was the voting system in the Old Regime? Why was the king of France determined to continue the same practice? What was the new system of voting being proposed and whom was it proposed by?

• Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote. This time too Louis XVI was determined to continue the same practice.

• The members of the third estate(the new system was proposed by the third estate) demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote.(new system of voting being proposed) This was one of the democratic principles put forward by philosophers like Rousseau in his book The Social Contract.

• When the king rejected this proposal, members of the third estate walked out of the assembly in protest.

What was the Tennis Court Oath and what was its agenda? (What did they declare themselves as?) Who were its leaders and what was their background?

• The representatives of the third estate viewed themselves as spokesmen for the whole French nation.

• On 20 June they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles.

• They declared themselves a National Assembly and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution for France that would limit the powers of the monarch. (agenda)

• They were led by Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès.

• Mirabeau was born in a noble family but was convinced of the need to do away with a society of feudal privilege. He brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles.

• Abbé Sieyès, originally a priest, wrote an influential pamphlet called ‘What is the Third Estate’?

What was the condition of France when the National Assembly was busy drafting a constitution?

• While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution, the rest of France seethed with turmoil.

• A severe winter had meant a bad harvest; the price of bread rose, often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies.

• After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the shops.

• At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris.

• On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille

What was the situation in the countryside when the National Assembly was busy drafting a constitution?

• In the countryside rumours spread from village to village that the lords of the manor had hired bands of brigands who were on their way to destroy the ripe crops.

• Caught in a frenzy of fear, peasants in several districts seized hoes and pitchforks and attacked chateaux.

• They looted hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues.

• A large number of nobles fled from their homes, many of them migrating to neighbouring countries

When was the Constitution of France completed? What was its main objective?

• The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791.

• Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch.

• These powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person, were now separated and assigned to different institutions – the legislature, executive and judiciary.

• This made France a constitutional monarchy.

What was the system of voting during the time France was a Constitutional Monarchy?

• The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected.

• That is, citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly.

• Not all citizens, however, had the right to vote.

• Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote.

• The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens.

• To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.

What was Marseillaise and whom was it composed by? How did it get its name?

• Among the patriotic songs they (volunteers thronged from the provinces to join the army.) sang was the Marseillaise, composed by the poet Roget de L’Isle.

• It was sung for the first time by volunteers from Marseilles as they marched into Paris and so got its name. The Marseillaise is now the national anthem of France.

What was the situation in France during the Revolutionary wars?

• The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people.

• While the men were away fighting at the front, women were left to cope with the tasks of earning a living and looking after their families.

• Large sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society.

• Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action.

• The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, which got its name from the former convent of St Jacob in Paris.

Who were the members of the Jacobins club and what did they wear? What did their outfit symbolize?

• The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of society.

• They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage workers.

• Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.

• A large group among the Jacobins decided to start wearing long striped trousers similar to those worn by dock workers.

• This was to set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of society, especially nobles, who wore knee breeches.

• It was a way of proclaiming the end of the power wielded by the wearers of knee breeches.

• These Jacobins came to be known as the sans-culottes, literally meaning ‘those without knee breeches’.

• Sansculottes men wore in addition the red cap that symbolised liberty. Women however were not allowed to do so.

What happened in the summer of 1792 and what were the events that followed?

• In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food.

• On the morning of August 10 they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king’s guards and held the king himself as hostage for several hours.

• Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family.

• Elections were held. From now on all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got the right to vote.

What was France declared as on 21st September 1792 and what was the newly elected assembly called?

• The newly elected assembly was called the Convention.

• On 21 September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.

• A republic is a form of government where the people elect the government including the head of the government. There is no hereditary monarchy.

Why was the period from 1793- 1794 called the Reign of Terror?

• The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror.

• Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment.

• All those whom he saw as being ‘enemies’ of the republic – ex-nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own party who did not agree with his methods – were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal.

• If the court found them ‘guilty’ they were guillotined.

What was Guillotine and who invented it?

The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. It was named after Dr Guillotin who invented it.

What were the reforms brought by Robespierre?

• Robespierre’s government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices.

• Meat and bread were rationed.

• Peasants were forced to transport their grain to the cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government.

• The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden; all citizens were required to eat the plain d’égalité (equality bread), a loaf made of wholewheat.

• Equality was also sought to be practised through forms of speech and address.

• Instead of the traditional Monsieur (Sir) and Madame (Madam) all French men and women were henceforth Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen).

• Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks or offices.

What happened to the government in France after the fall of Jacobin’s government?

• The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power.

• A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-propertied sections of society.

• It provided for two elected legislative councils.

• These then appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members.

• This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under the Jacobins.

• However, the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them.

• The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

What were the jobs performed by women?

• Most women of the third estate had to work for a living.

• They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables at the market, or were employed as domestic servants in the houses of prosperous people.

• Most women did not have access to education or job training.

What was the main demand of women?

• One of the main demands was that women enjoy the same political rights as men.

• Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens.

• They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold political office.

• Only then, they felt, would their interests be represented in the new government.

What did the Revolutionary Government do to improve the condition of women?

• In the early years, the revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped improve the lives of women.

• Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls.

• Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will.

• Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil law.

• Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men.

• Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses.

What was one of the most revolutionary social reform introduced by the Jacobins?

One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies.

How did ‘slave trade‘ take place?

• The colonies in the Caribbean – Martinique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo – were important suppliers of commodities such as tobacco, indigo, sugar and coffee.

• But the reluctance of Europeans to go and work in distant and unfamiliar lands meant a shortage of labour on the plantations.

• So this was met by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas.

• The slave trade began in the seventeenth century.

• French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains.

• Branded and shackled, the slaves were packed tightly into ships for the three-month long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean.

• There they were sold to plantation owners.

• The exploitation of slave labour made it possible to meet the growing demand in European markets for sugar, coffee, and indigo.

• Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes owed their economic prosperity to the flourishing slave trade.

Who abolished slavery and for what duration? Why was this duration short? When was the slavery finally abolished in France?

• It was finally the Convention which in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions.

• This, however, turned out to be a short-term measure: ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery.

• Plantation owners understood their freedom as including the right to enslave African Negroes in pursuit of their economic interests.

• Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.

What were the changes that took place for good during the revolution?

• One important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the Bastille in the summer of 1789 was the abolition of censorship.

• In the Old Regime all written material and cultural activities – books, newspapers, plays – could be published or performed only after they had been approved by the censors of the king.

• Now the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right.

• Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside.

• They all described and discussed the events and changes taking place in France.

• Freedom of the press also meant that opposing views of events could be expressed.

• Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the medium of print.

• Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people.

• This was one way they could grasp and identify with ideas such as liberty or justice that political philosophers wrote about at length in texts which only a handful of educated people could read.

Write a short description of Napoleon in France.

• In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France.

• Napoleon saw his role as a moderniser of Europe.

• He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system.

• Initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom for the people.

• But soon the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force.

• He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

• Many of his measures that carried the revolutionary ideas of liberty and modern laws to other parts of Europe had an impact on people long after Napoleon had left.

What is the conclusion gained from the chapter “The French Revolution“?

• The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution.

• These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal systems were abolished.

• Colonised peoples reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a sovereign nation state.

• Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to the ideas coming from revolutionary France.

Why was the Bastille hated by the people of France?

• The Bastille (fortress prison) was hated by all, because it stood for the despotic power of the king.

• When the fortress was demolished, its stone fragments were sold in the markets to all those who wished to keep a souvenir of its destruction.

What was the importance of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens?

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen-

• gave the citizens the power to speak freely

• held equality before law

• gave the freedom of opinion and the right to live independently

• stated that the included rights could not be taken away from the citizens and that is was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.

Discuss the role of women during the French Revolution?

Compare the manifesto drafted by Olympe de Gouges with the Declaration of Rights of Men and Citizen.

Explain the conditions which led to the rise of Jacobins.

Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the people of the world during the 19th and 20th centuries.

Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origin could be traced to the French Revolution.

Can politics change the clothes people wear, the language they speak and the books they read? Comment.

Olympe de Gouges was one of the most important politically active women in revolutionary France. Comment.

Name the political club started by the women in France to voice their grievances.

What landmark decisions were taken by the National Assembly on 4th August 1789?

Why did the National Assembly declare war against Prussia and Austria?

Who all were considered as middle class and what was their opinion?

What did the Constitution of France begin with(1 word)?

Why did the situation of France continue to be tense even after the making of the constitution?

What fate did Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and Robespierre share?

Through all the changes which ideals inspired France and the rest of the world?

Why wasn’t the slave trade abolished by the National Assembly?