P/S UWorld Terms

Top-down processing

conceptually driven processing that is guided by information, beliefs, or ideas already stored in our brain

Bottom-up processing

stimulus-driven processing that is driven by incoming data, often sensory information

Parallel processing

processing multiple sources of information that occur simultaneously

Serial processing

processing one piece of information at a time

Difference threshold and Just Noticeable Difference are the same true/false?

true, smallest difference between 2 stimuli a person can detect 50% of the time

Absolute threshold

intensity value at which an individual is able to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

3 components of attitude

1) affective: how a person feel about something; positive or negative

2) cognitive: relates to a person’s beliefs/feelings

3) behavioral: how a person acts towards something

expectancy theory of motivation

individuals are motivated to act based on the expected outcomes of their behavior; expectancy, instrumentality, valence

humanistic theory of motivation

assuming basic needs, such as hunger, have been met, individuals are motivated to seek ultimate fulfillment of their own potential

arousal theory of motivation

individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousal

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

physiological needs>safety needs>belongingness and love needs>esteem needs>self-actualization

Drive-reduction theory

motivation is a result of a disruption of homeostasis, which generates a biological need

internal vs external locus of control

internal: individual believes they have the power to influence an outcome

external: outcome is due to luck or fate, individual has no control

self-efficacy

person’s beliefs about their own competence or ability at a certain task

primary vs secondary group

primary: composed of a small number of individuals sharing close, informal, and enduring personal relationship; ex: family

secondary: group of individuals, larger in size, coming together to accomplish something; ex: coworkers

reference group

a comparison group in which an individual compares themselves; may or may not actually belong to the group

cultural diffusion vs cultural transmission

diffusion: spread of beliefs or behaviors from one culture or group to another

transmission: passing of knowledge and values to the next generation

social sanctions

penalties for breaking rules or laws

confirmation bias

where an individual embraces evidence supporting their belief, ignores evidence refuting their belief, and interpreting ambiguous evidence as support

self-serving bias

successes are attributed to internal factors; ex: I got an A because I am smart

failures are attributed to external factors; ex: I failed because the questions were unfair

actor- observer bias

people give themselves the benefit of the doubt by attributing their actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal factors and judging them more harshly

hindsight bias

“I knew it”; event is perceived as predictable after it has already occurred

monoamine hypothesis

biomedical model of depression, depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) in the central nervous system directly causes depressive symptoms

serotonin

monoamine neurotransmitter associated with positive mood, satisfaction, and social dominance

dopamine

monoamine neurotransmitter responsible for feelings of pleasure/reward

norepinephrine

monoamine neurotransmitter that increases alertness, attention, and memory

Parkinson’s Disease

destruction of dopaminergic neurons found in the basal ganglia called the substantia nigra (involved in the selection and execution of voluntary movements)

anhedonia

lack of pleasure

Structures part of the reward pathway in the brain

includes ventral tegmental area, nucleus acumbens, hippocampus, amygdala, and part of the prefrontal cortex

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

antidepressants that selectively block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron, increasing the presence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

antidepressants used to inhibit the activity of monoamine oxidase, an enzyme attached to mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyze the oxidation (breakdown) of monoamines (serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine)

Social cognitive theory

people learn through observing others; called vicarious learning

labeling theory

individuals assigned a devious label by society are more likely to behave in devious ways

cognitive dissonance

internal conflict resulting from beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors that are incompatible, dissonant, or contradictory; causes stress

drive-reduction theory

motivation arises from biological needs and the desire to maintain homeostasis which drives individuals to take action to fulfill those needs

optimism bias

people underestimate the possibility that bad things will happen to them

subculture vs counterculture

sub: group of individuals who are characteristically distinct from the dominant culture, but their values and norms still generally align with dominant culture

counter: group of individuals who oppose and reject the norms/values of the dominant culture

Modernization vs Secularization

modernization: relates the reduced importance of religion to the industrialization of society

secularization: relates the reduced power of religion to a decline in religious involvement

religiosity

the extent to which a religious doctrine is internalized and incorporated into an individual’s life

phi phenomenon

optical illusion where a series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving; also known as motion picture effect

working memory consists of a central executive that…

regulates attention and task switching; controls 3 other subsystems of working memory (visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer)

visuospatial sketchpad

part of working memory that is used when manipulating visual or spatial information

phonological loop

part of working memory that is used when manipulating spoken and/or written information

episodic buffer

part of working memory used for temporal processing (timing information), also brings information from long-term memory back into working memory for use

Left side of the brain is responsible for…

analytical thought, reasoning, math, science, touch and movement on right side

Right side of the brain is responsible for…

spatial processing, emotion, art, music, visualization, touch and movement on left side

mirror neurons

neurons in the brain that fire both while observing and while performing a behavior; plays a central role in observational learning

sensory memory

iconic (eye) lasts 1-2 seconds

echoic (ear) lasts 3-5 seconds

vicarious emotions

an observer intuits the feelings that another might be experiencing; may use mirror neurons (same neurons that process emotion and you feel those same emotions using those neurons)

Theories of Emotion…

James-Lange: physiological response then emotion

Cannon-Bard: physiological response and emotion occur at the same time

Schachter-Singer: physiological response, brain interprets it and assigns an emotion to it, then you feel emotion

What part of the brain modulates emotion, what part produces the physiological response to emotion, and what part produces emotion?

pre-frontal cortex modulates emotion

hypothalamus is responsible for physiological response to emotion

limbic system produces emotion

groupthink

group arrives at an incorrect or irrational decision because group members do not evaluate all available information in order to reach a consensus

social loafing

individual exerts less effort as a member of a group compared to individually

reliability

consistency of an experiment or measure to have the same outcome

social facilitation effect

the enhancement of a performance of simple or well-learned tasks when an individual has an audience

compliance

type of conformity where an individual publicly goes along with the group, but privately maintains their stance

normative conformity

individual identifies with group members, so they conform to fit in and avoid disapproval

informational conformity

individual views others as experts and they are uncertain of what to do, so they conform

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation about people or events that may affect another person’s behavior causing those expectations to be fulfilled

ex: If I think Joe is a piece of shit, and I treat Joe like a piece of shit because of it, Joe is most likely going to act like a piece of shit in front of me as a reaction to my thoughts of him

somatosensory system

proprioceptors found within our skin and muscles provide information about the location and movement of the body in space

feature detection

analysis of the features of objects (color, shape, depth)

semicircular canals detect…

otolithic organs detect…

angular acceleration

linear acceleration

linear perspective

monocular que; parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance

stereopsis is also known as…

retinal disparity; binocular que caused because there is a slight difference in the images that go to both of your eyes

accomodation

adjusting the lens in the eye so it can focus on an image

opponent process theory

the brain splits up the colors detected by cones into opposites resulting in a person seeing green if they stare at the color red for too long

Young-Helmholtz/trichromatic theory of color

we have three types of cones in our eyes, red, blue, and green

obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

person must perform ritual in order to reduce anxiety

somatic symptom disorder vs illness anxiety disorder

in somatic symptom disorder physical symptoms are present, but in illness anxiety disorder they are not

spontaneous recovery

sudden reappearance of a conditioned response after it has been extinguished

positive vs negative

positive: something added

negative: something removed

punishment vs reinforcement

punishment: decrease or stop a behavior

reinforcement: increase behavior