bio final correct

What is ATP?

ATP is adenosine triphosphate and is the basic energy unit of all cells

How does ATP work?

ATP releases and stores energy through breaking and reforming the bonds between its phosphate groups.

How do plants capture sunlight?

Plants capture sunlight using the green pigmentation in chlorophyl

What is an electron carrier molecule?

An electron carrier is a compound that can accept a pair of high energy electrons and transfer them, along with most of their energy, to another molecule

How does photosynthesis work?

Photosynthesis uses the energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide (reactants) into high energy sugars and oxygen (products).

What are light dependent reactions?

Light dependent reactions are the parts of photosynthesis that use energy from the sun.

What happens during light dependent reactions?

The thylakoid takes water (H20) and separates it into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen. This hydrogen molecule then bonds with NADP+ to become NADPH. Light dependent reactions also convert ADP into ATP.

What are light independent reactions?

Light independent reactions are the parts of photosynthesis that do not use energy directly from the sun, but instead use energy from ATP. Also known as the Calvin Cycle.

What happens during light independent reactions?

ATP and NADPH (from the light dependent reactions) are used alongside CO2 to make high-energy sugars.

What are the most important factors that affect photosynthesis?

Temperature, light intensity, and availability of water.

Why is ATP useful to cells?

ATP can easily release and store energy by breaking and re-forming the bonds between its phosphate groups. This characteristic of ATP makes it exceptionally useful as a basic energy source for all cells.

What are the reactants of photosynthesis?

carbon dioxide and water

What are the products of photosynthesis?

glucose and oxygen

What are heterotrophs?

Organisms that gets its energy from other organisms

What are autotrophs?

Organisms that make their own food

What is a thylakoid?

A saclike photosynthetic membrane found in chloroplasts. This is where light dependent reactions take place.

What is the stroma?

The fluid portion of the chloroplast; outside of the thylakoids, location where light independent reactions take place.

What is the electron transport chain?

A series of electron carrier proteins embedded in a membrane that shuttle high energy electrons during ATP generating reactions.

What is ATP synthase?

An enzyme spanning the thylakoid membrane that allows H+ ions to pass through it (chemiosmosis) causing a rotation that binds ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP.

What is cellular respiration?

The process that releases energy from food in the presence of oxygen.

What are the stages of cellular respiration?

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain

What takes place during glycolysis?

One molecule of glucose (a six carbon compound) is transformed into two molecules of pyruvic acid (a three carbon compound)

What takes place during the Krebs cycle?

Pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy extracting reactions.

What takes place in the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?

The electron transport chain uses the high energy electrons from glycolysis in the Krebs cycle to convert ADP into ATP.

How much ATP does cellular respiration generate per glucose molecule?

36 ATP per glucose molecule

What is fermentation?

The process of making ATP when oxygen is not present

What is the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

Photosynthesis creates oxygen and glucose, which are then used in cellular respiration to make ATP.

What is a Calorie?

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius

What does aerobic mean?

Requiring oxygen

What does anaerobic mean?

Not requiring oxygen

Where does cellular respiration take place?

The mitochondria

What is the matrix?

Innermost compartment of the mitochondrion, is the site of Krebs cycle reactions.

Why is a smaller cell more efficient than a larger cell?

The larger a cell becomes, the more demands the cell places on its DNA. In addition, a larger cell is less efficient in moving nutrients and waste materials across the cell membrane.

What is asexual reproduction?

The production of an offspring that is genetically identical to the parent.

What is sexual reproduction?

The production of an offspring that inherits genetic material from two parents.

What are the stages of the cell cycle?

Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis.

What are the parts of interphase?

G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase

What happens during the G1 phase?

Cell growth

What happens during the S phase?

DNA replication

What happens during the G2 phase?

Preparation for cell division

What happens during prophase?

Chromosomes become visible as DNA condenses and the nucleus breaks down

What happens during metaphase?

Chromosomes line up across the center of the cell, attached to spindle fibers

What happens during anaphase?

Sister chromatids separate and move apart

What happens during telophase?

A nucleus forms around each set of chromosomes to form two nuclei.

What happens during cytokinesis?

The cytoplasm divides, splitting one cell into two. In animal cells, the cell membrane pinches in like a drawstring. In plant cells, a cell wall is built between the two newly formed cells.

What controls the cell cycle?

Proteins outside and inside a cell

What is cancer?

Uncontrolled cell growth, takes place when cells do not respond to signals to divide/not divide.

What are stem cells?

Unspecialized cells from which differentiated cells develop.

Why are stem cells important?

They offer the possible benefit of using undifferentiated cells to repair or replace badly damaged cells and tissues. Human embryonic stem cell research is controversial because it involves using fertilized human eggs.

What are chromosomes?

Supercoiled chromatin made to form long rod-like structures. Only formed during cell division.

What is chromatin?

A complex of DNA and histones (proteins) that make up the eukaryotic chromosomes when the cell is NOT dividing. In this unraveled form, the DNA is accessible to make proteins.

What is mitiosis?

The process of cell division (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis)

What are chromatids?

Half of a chromosome.

What are sister chromatids?

Two identical chromatids.

What is the centromere?

The area where two chromatids are joined together, also where the spindle fibers attached.

What is a growth factor?

An external regulatory protein that stimulates the growth and division of cells

What is apoptosis?

A process by which a cell is programmed to die.

What is an embryo?

An organism in its early stages of development

What is differentiation in cells?

A process in which cells become specialized in structure and function.

What are totipotent cells?

Cells that have the ability to develop into all the tissues of the body.

What are pluripotent cells?

Cells that have the ability to develop into all of the body's cell types, but are not capable of developing into the tissues surrounding the embryo

What are multipotent cells?

Cells that have the ability to produce many, but not all, kinds of differentiated cells.

What are cyclins?

A group of regulatory proteins that ensure tasks in the cell cycle are done at the correct time before the cell moves on to the next stage

What is a benign tumor?

An abnormal, non-cancerous mass of cells within otherwise normal tissue which remain at the original site. Most do not cause serious problems and can be removed with surgery.

What is a malignant tumor?

Abnormal cell growth that spreads to surrounding tissues and impair the functions of one or more organs.

What is metastasis?

The spread of cancer from one location to another, invading neighboring tissues.

What is DNA?

A nucleic acid that stores and passes genetic information from one generation to the next. Is the genetic material of life, and is a double stranded helix. Must be capable of storing, copying, and passing on genetic information in a cell.

What is DNA polymerase?

An enzyme that joins individual nucleotides to produce a new strand of DNA.

What is DNA helicase?

An enzyme that breaks weak hydrogen bonds between strands

What are the base pairings of DNA?

adenine to thymine (A-T) and guanine to cytosine (G-C)

What are the chemical bases in DNA?

adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine (A, G, C, T)

What are three main differences between RNA and DNA?

1. The sugars are different (ribose vs deoxyribose) 2. RNA is single-stranded, DNA is double-stranded. 3. RNA contains uracil in replace of thymine.

What is the purpose of DNA in relation to RNA?

DNA are the "main instructions" for proteins and stuff, RNA is copies of these instructions that can be taken out of the nucleus.

What is the genetic code?

A collection of codons in mRNA, each of which directs the incorporation of a particular amino acid into a protein during protein synthesis.

What are codons?

A group of three nucleotide bases in mRNA that specify a particular amino acid to be incorporated into a protein

What are genes?

Sets of instructions that code for the production of proteins, which in turn construct an organism's body and facilitate its physiological interactions

What are mutations?

Changes in genetic information that can be inherited

What is the central dogma of molecular biology?

Information is passed from DNA to RNA to proteins.

How is RNA made?

Through DNA transcription

What is RNA polymerase?

The enzyme that unwinds the double helix of DNA and creates mRNA by reading the genetic code in the DNA.

What role do ribosomes play in assembling proteins?

Ribosomes take the amino acids from the tRNA to synthesize proteins

What is messenger RNA (mRNA)?

A type of RNA that carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell

What is ribosome RNA (rRNA)?

A type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes, which are used in making proteins.

What is transfer RNA (tRNA)?

A type of RNA that carries each amino acid to a ribosome during protein synthesis.

What is transcription?

The first step in protein synthesis in which mRNA is made from a DNA template inside of the nucleus.

What is a polypeptide?

A long chain of amino acids that make up a protein.

What is translation?

The process by which the sequence of bases of an mRNA is converted into the sequence of amino acids of a protein

What is an anticodon?

A group of three bases on tRNA that are complementary to the three bases of a codon on the mRNA.

What are chromosomal mutations?

Mutations in which an entire part of a chromosome is changed

What are gene mutations?

Mutations in which the bases have been changed within one gene

What are point mutations?

A gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed

What is a frameshift mutation?

A shift in the triplets that can change every amino acid that follows the mutations and alter the protein so much that it cannot function.

What is a substitution mutation?

A mutation in which one base is changed to another base. Might affect a single amino acid or have no affect at all.

What is a deletion mutation?

A mutation in which a nucleotide base is removed from the DNA sequence

What is an insertion mutation?

A mutation in which a nucleotide base is added to the DNA sequence.

What is a mutagen?

A chemical or physical agent in the environment that causes a mutation in DNA.

What is polyploidy?

A condition in which an organism has an extra set of chromosomes

What is Mendel's law of Dominance?

Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. Genes are discrete units of inheritance. An organism with at least one dominant allele for a gene coding for a particular trait will exhibit the dominant form of a trait. An organism will express the recessive trait only if no dominant allele is present.

What is a Punnett square?

A chart used to predict the probability of combinations of alleles in a genetic cross

What is Mendel's Law of Segregation?

During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.