AP Psychology Unit 2

Glial Cells (neuroglia)

help support neurons (structure, nutrition, etc) ex. schwaan cells

Neurons

basic building block of nervous system

Dendrites

receiving incoming messages (from other neurons)

Cell body (soma)

contains the nucleus (Cell’s life support center)

Nucleus

make the decision to fire or not fire

Myelin Sheath

fatty tissue that insulates axon, speeding up transmission of messageno

node of ranvier

space between myelin sheath

axon

longest part of the neuron which the electric message travels the length of

schwaan cells

non-neuron cells in the CNS that form the myelin sheath

axon terminal buds (terminal branches)

end point of a neuron that releases neurotransmitters into the synapse, hence sending the message on to the next neuron

resting potential

when a neuron is not firing, has a negative charge with mostly potassium ions inside and mostly sodium ions outside

Polarization

at resting potential, when sodium is on the outside, potassium is on the inside of a neuronac

action potential

“nerve impulse” - causes the neuron to fire (message)

“all or nothing” principle

when nucleus decides to fire, it fires down the axon completely (all the way down) or not at all

intensity

strength or power of the message (only in one direction)

Depolarization

when message beings, sodium (+Na) ions come in and depolarize (neutralize) section of the axon - when opposites are no longer away (Na rushes in K rushes out)

Refractory period

Potassium (+K) ions are pushed out and neuron “pauses to reload” During this time a neuron is unable to fire - period of time after firing that the neuron is focused on resetting

reuptake

reabsorption of neurotransmitters by firing neurons

neurotransmitters

chemical substance that crosses the synapse to carry on the message to the next neuronsy

synapse

open space between two neurons at which neurotransmitters cross

receptor sites

specific points on dendrites of neurons that receive specific types of neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine

muscle contracting, memory and learning (alzheimer’s)

Neurotransmitter: Glutamate

memory, major excitatory involved in memory, oversupply can lead to migraines and seizures

Neurotransmitter: dopamine

movement thought process, rewarding sensation (parkinson’s, schizophrenia, drug addiction)

Neurotransmitter: serotonin

emotional states, sleep (depression)

Neurotransmitter: norepinephrine

physical arousal. learning and memory (depression, stress)

Neurotransmitter: GABA

inhibition of brain activity (anxiety disorders)

Neurotransmitter: endorphins

pain perception, positive emotions, “runner’s high” (opiate addiction)

Neurotransmitter: substance P

pain +immunity, in the brain + spinal cord - associated with inflammatory processes and pain. oversupply can result in chronic pain

agonist

mimic neurotransmitter activity - fitting in receptor site like a master key, works just like the original key but exactly the same (morphine), stimulate and impersonate - indistinguishable from natural endorphins

antagonist

block neurotransmitters activity - fitting in the receptor like a fake key - preventing the neurotransmitter from getting to its receptor site and doing its job (Botox)

reuptake inhibitor

a type of antagonist that blocks the reuptake process to increase a neurotransmitter

nervous system

consists of all nerve cells - body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system

peripheral nervous system

sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to rest of body

central nervous system

contains spine and brain, center of body

autonomic (peripheral)

controls involuntary functions/items that happen automatically within body (breathing, heartbeat, digesting)

somatic (peripheral)

controls voluntary movements and communications to and from the sense organs (you can control these, they don’t just happen)

brain (CNS)

neural center of body - control center

spinal cord (CNS)

super highway of nerves - body’'s means of transmitting messages to and from brain

sympathetic (autonomic)

physically arouses body, preparing it for action react in stressful situations, expending energy (initiates fight or flight)

parasympathetic (autonomic)

calms body, conserve energy and help keep a constant internal state (initiates rest and digest)

interneurons

only neurons in CNS, acting as messengers between sensory and motor neurons

sensory (afferent) neurons

carries incoming messages from sense receptors to CNS

motor (efferent) neurons

carries outgoing information from CNS to peripheral and muscles

endocrine system

communicates with the brain using chemical messages, called hormones

hormones

released into and circulate through the bloodstream (received only at a specific site) - works with parasympathetic system until normal circumstances to maintain homeostasis but when in crisis it works to support the sympathetic nervous system

pituitary gland

“master gland” directed by the hypothalumus

Hormone: adrenaline

adrenal glands, fight or flight, plays role in emotional memory formation same chemical as epinephrineHormone:

Hormone: leptin

turning off hungerHormone:

Hormone: ghrelin

turning on hunger

Hormone: melatonin

signals relaxation and lower body temp that helps with restful sleep

Hormone: oxytocin

us vs. them (social trust bonding)

cerebral cortex

outermost layer of cerebrum and most prominent part of brain - made up of grey matter that covers inner white matter of cerebrum - responsible for most of the sophisticated processing of the brain - higher order thoughts

corpus callosum

bundle of fibers that connects two hemispheres

hippocampus (limpic system)

converts short term memory into long term memory - involved in processing and retrieving declarative (facts and events) memory - spatial relationship memories - dysfunction: alzheimers and retrograde amnesia

thalamus (limbic system)

sensory switchboard - receives and sports sensory info, then sends it to the cortex for further interpretation - smell is the only sensory exception - relay center for senses but smell

hypothalamus (limbic system) F’s

fight or flight, feeding, fornication, homeostasis and hormones, reward/pleasure

amygdala (limbic system) A’s

anger, aggression, afraid (fear responses), also helps ingrain highly emotional memories - emotions

cerebellum (hindbrain)

balance and equilibrium - coordinated sequences of movement - implicit memory and nonverbal learning

pons (hindbrain)

bridge that connects brain stem and cerebellum - help coordinate and integrate movements on each side body - plays a role in sleep functions

medulla (hindbrain)

basic autonomic functions: heart rate, breathing, blood pressure - reflexes: swallowing , sneezing, vomiting

reticular formation (RAS)

a network of nerve fibers involved in attention, arousal, and alertness

hindbrain

lizard brain - brainstem, cerebellum, and hypothalamusm

midbrain

mammal brain- limbic system and hippocampus

forebrain

human brain - cerebral cortex

brain lesions

experimentally destroys brain tissue to study behaviors after such destruction - usually done for scientific or medicinal purposes (function)

EEG

an amplified recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes placed on scalp (function)P

PET Scan

positron emission tomography - a process that’s used to observe metabolic processes in the body and brain. Patient ingests a radioactive form of glucose, PET then takes a picture of it being used in the body/brain (function)

MRI

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of brain tissue (structure)

fMRI

measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow - the patient interacts with information during the scan to show activity (function)

CT/CAT Scan

computerized tomography - combines a series of x-ray images to allow taken from different angles, that create cross-sectional images of the body(bone) and brain (structure)

frontal lobe

prefrontal cortex - develops last - controls functions like: judgement, planning, producing speech sounds, controlling emotions, personality, temperament, movement (motor cortex) - works with motor cortex to make precise movements

parietal lobe

controls functions like: body positioning - spatial reasoning like: touch, pressure, temperature, pain - feeling

temporal lobe

on the side - controls functions like: hearing (primary auditory cortex), storing long term memories, speech and language - understanding

occipital lobe

controls functions like: all aspects of vision (primary visual cortex) - each piece of visual cortex corresponds to a particular place on the retina, receiving only info from that place, pieces are later put together to form the whole

association areas

over ½ of cerebral cortex is uncommitted to sensory or muscular activity - these areas are involved in higher mental functioning

wernicke’s area

area in left temporal lobe that is involved in language comprehension and expression

wernicke’s aphasia

doesn’t understand ahwat words mean

broca’s area

area in left frontal lobe that directs muscle movements involved in directing motor movement involved in speech

broca’s aphasia

unable to speak

left brain

language - controls right - speech, grammar, rules, reading, writing, math - verbal memory - language sounds - words, letters

right brain

rhythm - controls left - geometry, sense of direction, distance, mental rotation of shapes - emotional tone of speech - nonverbal memory - non-language sounds, music - geometric patterns, faces, emotional expression - “big picture”

corpus callosum

two hemispheres communicate/share information through…

brain neuroplasticity

brain’s ability to continuously change throughout ones life due to its use (if you don’t use it you lose it). Brain activity associated with a certain function can be transferred to a different location, particularly if the OG area is damaged

synaptic pruning

process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated in order to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions (lose it)

long-term potentiation (LTP)

persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long lasting increase in signal transmissions between two neurons (use it)

psychoactive drugs

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood (effects conciousness)

tolerance

more use leads to bigger doses to get desired effect

dependence

absence of drug may lead to feelings of physical pains (intense cravings) and negative emotions (pyschological)

withdrawal

upon stop taking a drug (after addiction) users may experience undesirable effects of withdrawal

depressants “downers”

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

stimulants “uppers”

excite neural activity and speed up body functions

hallucinogens (pyschodelics)

drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

circadian rhythm

occur on a 24 hour cycle and includes sleep and wakefulness - controlled by hypothalamus - natural CR is 25 hours

NREM 1

light sleep - just drifting to sleep, may experience fantastic images or auditory hallucinations - theta waves: slower than alpha, feelings of weightfulness

NREM 2

light sleep - more relaxed, clearly asleep - sleep spindles: short bursts of brain activity occur

NREM 3

deep sleep - transitional stage to deeper sleep, deepest sleep of all, hard to awake, only occurs during first few cycles of the night - brain activity significantly slowed - Delta: slower, deep sleep

REM - paradoxical sleep

sleep cycle starts moving back to stage 1 - exhibits rapid eye movement and vivid dreams - brain very active but body relaxed and paralyzed - although still asleep brain engages in amplitude, fast and regular beta waves - much like aware aroused state - waves become rapid

insomnia

difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep

narcolepsy

overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking