UNC HIST 220 Dynamic Identifications (Andrews - Fall 2018)

Anthropology Days

Who: James E. Sullivan (founder of amateur athletic union)

What: a human zoo at the World's Fairs in which primitive people were displayed in pens for people to observe them

When: 1904

Where: St. Louis

Significance: Meant to show anglo-American superiority... held a "special olympics" for those groups in order to prove that they were "inferior" to the white athletes... hypocritical of olympism (idea of bringing people together) in those days, only white athletes were respected and seen as legitimate.

Peter O'Connor

Who: Irish track athlete who was representing Great Britain

What: after winning gold in the long jump, he jumped off the podium, climbed up the flag pole and ripped down the British flag; replaced it with Erin Go Bragh flag

When: 1906 Intercalated Games

Where: Athens

Significance: early example of a political demonstration (Rule 50 implications today); wanted Irish independence (which came in 1922) but Irish athletes were forced to compete as part of the GB delegation; this was shocking to the IOC - they view it as bringing politics into the Games

Dorando Pietri

Who: Italian long-distance runner

What: competed in the marathon and initially came in first place after turning the wrong way, falling and being helped across the finish line; ultimately was disqualified for receiving assistance and Johnny Hayes wins be default

When: 1908

Where: London

Significance: this is the event that gets people really interested in the Olympics

Jim Thorpe

Who: first Native American to win gold medal at the Olympics (decathlon and pentathlon)

What: won gold before being disqualified for receiving payments back in 1910 for playing baseball in Rocky Mount, NC

When: 1912

Where: Stockholm

Significance: violation of the amateurism rule --> forced to return medals and name was removed from the record books --> also indicates racism since many white athletes did the same thing and got away with it...reinstated in the 1980s (however, he died in 1953...)

Goodwill Games

Who: Ted Turner created

What: an alternative to the Olympics that included the US and the Soviet Union

When: 1986-2001

Where: US and Soviet Union (rotating locations)

Significance: concepts of making money and lessening international tensions; wanted Goodwill Games to do what Olympic Games did before they got so political

South Korean President Chun Doo Hwan and Seoul 1988

Who: president of South Korea from 1980-1988

What: Seoul Summer Games

When: 1988

Where: Seoul, South Korea

Significance: Chun Doo Hwan wanted to use the Games to put South Korea on the map globally and use the games as a centerpiece to renovate the city. (Miracle on the Han River - cleaned up the very polluted water); Olympics also had huge political impact on the nation --> standard of living was increasing dramatically in the 60s and 70s and by the late 1970s, the country rivaled Europe in terms of industry and standard of living, but not with political --> freedom 1987 political protests from democratic reforms and the president shuts them down since because of the upcoming Olympics --> chooses to compromise and give the people more political and personal freedom in an effort to not lose the Games

The Olympic Program (TOP)

Who: Juan Antonio Samaranch and Peter Ueberroth played a role in developing TOP since Samaranch wanted to maximize revenue and Ueberroth developed the concept of using sponsorship as a way to increase revenue and pay for the Games

What: a small, select group of corporate sponsors who pay extremely large amounts of money to advertise at the Olympics; the partnership also enables the sponsors to use the Olympic rings in their advertising

When: established 1985

Where: n/a

Significance: The development of TOP resulted from the commercialization of the Games and the addition of corporate sponsorships to help fund the games. By limiting the number of sponsors, companies had to bid against each other which drove the prices up. That trend has continued over time (TOP revenue between 1985 and 1988 was $95 million, while TOP revenue between 2013 and 2016 was $1 billion). An example: Toyota's 10-year, $835 million partnership with the IOC established in 2015. Sponsorships now make up about 45% of Olympic revenue.

"Capitalism at Play"

Who:

What:

When: 1996, 2004, 2012

Where: Atlanta, Athens, London

Significance:

"Coca-Cola Olympics"

Who: Coca-Cola and the Olympics (Coke was a HUGE sponsor of the Games due to its location and the Games seemed like a huge advertisement for Coke)

What: 1996 Summer Olympics

When: 1996

Where: Atlanta, Georgia

Significance: These Games had a lot of advertising to the point it was called a "schlockery." Fits with the "Capitalism at Play" theme because the 1996 Atlanta Games show how the commercialization of the Olympics have made the Games a for-profit entertainment spectacle, as opposed to an international event aimed at promoting peace and international relations. "Cheapening" of the Games and their purpose. Often considered one of the worst Games in history as a result. Public housing was forcibly removed to make room for the Olympic Village, and homeless people were rounded up and essentially forced to leave.

Mo Farah

Who: British long distance runner

What: won gold in 5,000m and 10,000m at the 2012 Olympics

When: 2012

Where: London

Significance: people were really excited about Farah because he represented a new, modern, cosmopolitan British identity and culture in which people valued diversity. Farah was born in eastern Africa and arrived in London at age 8 as a refugee; also a practicing Muslim. However, in 2016, during the Brexit vote, many argued that Britain had become too diverse and that there were too many immigrants. Brexit ultimately passed.

"Barcelona Model"

Who: n/a

What: the concept of redeveloping and restructuring Barcelona around the Games in a way that makes long-term, positive changes for the city; spent $12 billion on renovating highways, building new airport, cleaning up polluted waterways - all in order to make the Olympic-going more friendly

When: 1992

Where: Barcelona, Spain

Significance: No city has benefited from the Games the way in which Barcelona did. Tourism became a booming industry and is now almost too robust - showed the world how beautiful the city was. Others have tried to mimic this outcome, but Barcelona's Games came at the perfect moment when renovations were being planned anyway and the economy was doing well. Absolutely spectacular. Opening Games took place at night, which was also something different that dramatized the event.

Dassler Brothers Sports Shoe Company

Who: Adolf and Rudolf Dassler; German brothers

What: owned a shoe company that eventually split into Adidas (Adolf) and Puma (Rudolf); built boots for Nazis, but later downplayed Nazi ties... athletes began wearing the shoes at the 1936 Olympics

When: 1930s

Where: Germany

Significance: Jesse Owens wore them in 1936 at the Berlin Games, which catapulted the company to international recognition. This association with a celebrity athlete was crucial in their rise to success. Abebe Bikila had deal with Puma, and Mark Spitz had deal with Adidas. These sponsorships were technically forbidden under the rules of amateurism, but many athletes had secret shoe deals as a means of earning money.

"The Dream Team"

Who: Charles Barkley, Larry Bird, Clyde Drexler, Patrick Ewing, Magic Johnson, Michael Jordan, Christian Laettner, Karl Malone, Chris Mullin, Scottie Pippen, David Robinson and John Stockton --> to name some

What: first American Olympic to feature professional athletes

When: 1992

Where: Barcelona

Significance: Following years of amateurism (and rule breaking) at the Olympics, the IOC changed its charter in the early 1990s to allow professional athletes to play on national teams. Professionalism was most readily obvious on this team of some of basketball's most famous names.

IOC Rule 50

Who: IOC

What: four purposes --> protect athletes, prevent overcommercialization of the Games, prevent the Games from being used as a platform for protests/demonstrations and determine rules for manufacturers' identifications

When:

Where:

Significance: Peter O'Conner, Věra Čáslavská, Tommie Smith, John Carlos, Damien Hooper, Cathy Freeman

Cathy Freeman

Who: Aboriginal Australian sprinter

What: lit the Olympic torch at the 2000 Games and looked like she was walking on water

When: 2000

Where: Sydney

Significance:In 1994 at the Commonwealth Games in Victoria, British Columbia, Freeman carried both the Aboriginal and Australian flags when she won the 400 m event --> paying tribute to her heritage. Received some backlash, but in 2000, her heritage helped forge Aboriginal reconciliation at the Games (some criticized it as being a sell-out for a feel good moment, but it was widely regarded as a symbol of hope)

Damien Hooper

Who: Australian light-heavyweight boxer

What: made his Olympic debut in 2012; during competition, he entered the ring wearing a shirt with the Aboriginal flag --> symbol of pride, unity and identity

When: 2012

Where: London

Significance: His actions were said to be a violation of Rule 50 because it was interpreted as a "political demonstration." He did it for the purpose of honoring his heritage though. Illustrates issues with Rule 50 --> people being denied rights to represent their heritage and culture in areas where colonialism created issues with native people and forced assimilation.

Knud Jensen

Who: Danish cyclist

What: died during the 100 km team time trial after falling and fracturing his skull on the pavement (extremely hot that day) --> later discovered he was using amphetamines

When: 1960

Where: Rome Games

Significance: beginning of amphetamine outbreak, which led to drug testing beginning in 1968

Oral Turinabol

Who: East Germans experimented heavily with this

What: an anabolic-androgenic steroid given in the form of a pill that was invented in East Germany in the 1960s

When: 1960s-late 1980s (focus in 1970s - 1972 and 1976 records being broken by East German female swimmers)

Where: East German

Significance: state doping program; many East German athletes were told they were being given vitamins, but they were actually being given this drug to improve their athletic performance. If you failed to take the drugs, you were kicked out of the program. As a result, the athletes were forced (in many cases, unknowingly) to dope. As a result, athletes had negative health effects, such as liver failure, sterility and heart attacks; also note Heidi Krieger. The doping program worked as the East Germans were pretty dominant in beating the USA during this time period

Heidi Krieger

Who: east German shot putter

What: lost femininity due to steroid use (she was unknowingly doping as part of the East German doping program with oral turinabol)

When: began being given the pills in 1981 (age 16 approximately) and by 18 her body chemistry was changing

Where: East Germany

Significance: She ended her career in 1991 and ultimately underwent gender reassignment surgery. Her body chemistry changed significantly, and she developed male characteristics --> deprived of the ability to figure out who she was because the doping affected her sexuality.

Ben Johnson

Who: Canadian sprinter

What: was stripped of his 1988 gold medal in men's 100 m after testing positive for performance enhancing drugs

When: 1988

Where: Seoul Games

Significance: Ran in the "Dirtiest Race in History" (men's 100 m at 1988 Games). He was definitely on steroids using cycling practice to become bigger and faster. Ultimately tested positive for steroids, but interestingly tested positive for stanozolol, a drug that he wasn't known to take (admitted to the doping, but he had preference for a different one). Theories that either the drug test was flawed or that Andre Jackson dosed Johnson's beers before the test... something he neither confirms or denies.

World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

Who: chemists researching and creating drug tests

What: an IOC creation to stop steroid problems at the Olympics

When: est. 1997

Where: 1st used in Athens (2004)

Significance: Instituted a "whereabouts system" which killed the cycling method after 2004. Athletes have to let WADA know where they are at all times and WADA can show up and test them on the spot. Now, WADA is rewriting history - developing new tests that retroactively disqualify athletes. (ex. Chaunte Lowe - 2008 high jump - getting Bronze after moving up from 6th place)

Grigory Rodchenkov

Who: former head of Russia's national anti-doping lab (so his official title was)

What: he was inventing drugs and telling athletes when to take them ; developed tests that he could tell them how to get past and helped execute the swapping of WADA "tamper-proof" urine bottles through a hole in the wall of the storage room --> didn't know who was swapping though (suspected ex-KGB)

When: 2014

Where: Russia (Sochi Games)

Significance: Exposed the state-sponsored doping program in Russia that allowed athletes to dope and get away with it by tampering with urine samples and determining "work-arounds" for drug tests; Russia was then banned from 2018 Winter Games. Athletes competed though under Olympic flag (some still tested positive though). WADA also forced to address issues with their "safe" urine testing strategies.

Helen Stephens

Who: American sprinter who won gold in the 100 m race in 1936

What: accused of being a man dressed as a woman in order to win (argued that she was too muscular, fast and strong to be a woman; also that her facial angles resembled a man --> cultural beauty standards)

When: 1936

Where: Berlin Games

Significance: She was forced to undergo sex verification examination and her genitals were examined; she was confirmed to be a woman --> USOC made her to do this to silence critics. Very invasive. Leads to more widespread sex verification at the Games beginning in 1948 when the Games resume after WWII. Also this was part of the tense atmosphere between the US and Germany at the time.

Dora Ratjen

Who: German high jumper

What: whispers about her being a man competing as a woman but there was less attention on her since she did not win a gold medal like Stephens did.

When: 1936

Where: Berlin Games

Significance: 2 years after the Olympics, she was seen on a train with what looked like facial hair. It was illegal in Germany for a man to dress as a woman, so she was forced to undergo an examination. She was determined to be intersex (ambiguous anatomy). When she was born, the midwife was unsure and said she was a girl, but as she got older, she began to look and feel more like a man. In 1938, she said she had long thought she was a male and begins living as Heinrich Ratjen. For years, Ratjen was viewed as a cheat and the story was oversimplified, but this was someone struggling with their gender identity.

"Femininity Passport"

Who: n/a

What: certificates that verified female athletes had undergone chromosomal testing and were confirmed to be a woman

When: began in 1968

Where: Mexico City Games

Significance: Shows a switch from anatomical to chemical approaches when verifying sex (although this can still be wrong!). No such test that really works with chromosomes because there can be chromosomal inconsistencies. Nonetheless, people still had to undergo the Buccal Smear Test, which involved a cheek swap, to get the femininity passports. Ewa Klobukowska from Poland had sex verified from examination in 1964, but was banned in 1968 because of her XX and XXY chromosome test (had a baby the next year)... she was outraged

Caster Semenya

Who: South African middle-distance runner who won the 800 m at the 2016 Games

What: endured accusations about her gender and was determined to have hyperandrogenism (higher than average natural testosterone levels) --> accused of having unfair biological advantage

When: 2016

Where: Rio Games

Significance: Suspicion-based androgren testing - newer form of sex verification. Discussion of biological advantages being criticized (women) or being celebrated (men - ex. Michael Phelps' longer than average torso, aerobic ability and double-jointed ankles). She will be forbidden from competing unless she takes drugs to lower her androgen levels, but she doesn't want to do anything artificial to her body. Case ongoing so TBD what will happen.

2010 Winter Games Bylaw

Who: n/a

What: a new law prohibiting posters and banners that weren't celebratory of the Games

When: 2010

Where: Vancouver

Significance: Theme of cracking down on protests and cities playing by the IOC's rules --> putting best foot forward for the Games

Vladimir Putin

Who: Russian president

What:

When: 2014

Where: Sochi

Significance: state sponsored doping program and human rights violations (LGBTQ)

"Celebration Capitalism"

Who:

What: concept that people are willing to become more fascist to celebrate the Games; more limited freedoms to accommodate what the IOC wants

When:

Where:

Significance: Vancouver 2010 (poster restrictions), Athens 2004 (security)

BRIC

Who: Brazil, Russia, India, China (and South Africa if BRICS)

What: emerging markets, especially for international sporting events.

When: 2010s

Where: Brazil, Russia, India, China

Significance: Many of these places have gotten mega sporting events in the last few years. Beijing 2008 = when things began to change for Olympic hosting cities; cities now host the Games and other sporting events for three significant reasons (rapid industrialization, TOP sponsors and authoritarianism). They want the events to boost their economies and revitalize; they want sponsors to broaden their brands there; they don't have to respond to citizens' complaints about the cost of the Games.

"Darfur Olympics"

Who: n/a

What: nickname for the 2008 Beijing Summer Games because of China's support of Darfur

When: c.2008

Where: China (Beijing 2008) and Darfur, Sudan

Significance: trade of aid/weapons for oil; civil war in Darfur --> genocide and violence. By association, China came under fire for human rights violations. Pressure by activists (especially in Hollywood). American flag bearer was a "lost boy" from Sudan and China was VERY offended.

Seeds of Hope

Who: Rio Olympic organizers

What: a portion of the Opening Ceremonies in which all the athletes entered into the stadium with a cartridge of soil bearing a Brazilian tree seed; considered a way to offset carbon emissions and other environmental impacts of the Games

When: 2016

Where: Rio

Significance: Supposed to have been about 24 million trees planted in Athlete's Forest, but trees were never planted... fits with larger theme of Rio Olympics. There were a lot of promises made to improve the city, but things only got worse after the Games. Games were basically a disaster - displacing people, bad political environmental, economic problems, pollution, etc.

Agenda 2020

Who: the IOC

What: 40 recommendations of new ideas, policies and procedures that address spending issues, change the bidding process to reduce costs and improve human rights issues at the Games, especially the LGBTQ community

When/Where: announced at IOC meeting in Monaco in 2014

Significance: is this a real effort to change, or is it simply a rebranding effort? suggestions of widening the "host city" concept where different events would be spread across different cities in the same nation; focus on environmentalism in the future; important because cities don't really want to host the Games anymore... it's become too expensive and there needs to be solutions to keep the Games as we know them.