The Self from Philosophical Perspectives

Socrates

Ancient Greek philosopher who emphasized “Know thyself.” Believed wisdom comes from self-examination and acknowledging ignorance to grow and adapt.

Plato

Greek philosopher who viewed the self as immortal and composed of three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite. Harmony among these parts leads to a virtuous life.

Aristotle

Student of Plato who rejected the Theory of Forms. Believed the self is a composite of body and soul (hylomorphism) that are inseparable.

Saint Augustine

Theologian who saw the self as deeply connected with God. Believed the soul longs for union with God and fulfillment through divine grace.

René Descartes

French philosopher who introduced dualism (mind vs. body). Known for “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”), locating the self in the mind.

John Locke

English philosopher who viewed the self as shaped by experience and memory. Proposed the mind begins as a tabula rasa (blank slate).

David Hume

Scottish philosopher who denied a permanent self. His Bundle Theory states the self is just a collection of perceptions and experiences.

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher who divided the self into the inner self (mind, intellect, emotions) and the outer self (body and senses).

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis. Saw the self as the ego, balancing the id (desires) and superego (social rules).

Gilbert Ryle

Critic of Descartes. Argued that the self is not hidden but revealed in actions and behaviors. Called dualism the “ghost in the machine.”

Paul Churchland

Canadian philosopher who explained the self through neurophilosophy. Believed the self is a product of brain activity and scientific study.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty

French philosopher who saw the self as shaped by the body and sensory experience. Rejected dualism; the self develops through interaction with the world.