Physpharm week 8&9

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112 Terms

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cell membrane
made of phospholipid bilayer, with proteins embedded into membrane
lipid soluble molecules can pass through
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non charged molecule example
steroid hormones, pass through the lipid bilayer to interact with specific receptors
(steroid cases the receptor is located in cell, either in cytoplasm or nucleus)
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macromolecules example
peptide hormones
cannot go through lipid bilayer, must interact with specific receptor to transmit messages to cell
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ions
carry a charge, cannot pass through lipid bilayer and have to rely on protein channels in membrane to move across
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image of molecules that can pass through and can not
knowt flashcard image
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hormones
chemical molecules that have different properties
there are lipophilic steroid hormones, hydrophilic peptide hormones (bind to membrane-bound receptor)
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how does the endocrine system help maintain homeostasis
hormone expression can regulate many body functions, primarily controlled by negative feedback loops
the endocrine system acts as the negative feedback loop
hormones can be effectors and controlled variables
communication is key to maintain homeostasis
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kind of communication in body: long distance communication
nervous system and endocrine system
nervous system and endocrine system
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kind of communication in the body: short distance
autocrine and paracrine
autocrine and paracrine
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how does a neurotransmitter differ from a hormone and neurohormone
short distance vs long distance
short distance vs long distance
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neurohormone
a chemical signal secreted into the blood from a neuron to act on a distant tissue
the brain releases all sorts of hormones, some hormones are released by glands, while others by neuronal tissue
ex. ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
a chemical signal secreted into the blood from a neuron to act on a distant tissue
the brain releases all sorts of hormones, some hormones are released by glands, while others by neuronal tissue 
ex. ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
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how does hormone signalling work?
receptor-ligand specificity
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hormones are released to entire body, how are their effects controlled?
1. hormones are released into the blood stream
2. hormones circulate throughout the body
3. hormones will only bind to their specific receptors
4. only target cells will express that receptor
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examples of endocrine glands and associated hormones
pineal gland - melatonin
hypothalamus - hormones that control the pituitary
pituitary gland - oxytocin, ADH
parathyroid gland - parathyroid hormone
thyroid gland - thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), calcitonin
adrenal gland - aldosterone, epinephrine, cortisol, androgens (DHEA)
pineal gland - melatonin
hypothalamus - hormones that control the pituitary
pituitary gland - oxytocin, ADH
parathyroid gland - parathyroid hormone 
thyroid gland - thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), calcitonin 
adrenal gland - aldosterone, epinephrine, cortisol, androgens (DHEA)
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endocrine glands
knowt flashcard image
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protein hormones and how properties differ from other hormones
hormone example: hormones from the hypothalamus and the pituitary, pancreas
precursor: amino acids
location of receptor: membrane bound
time before onset of action: fast acting, short lived
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steroid hormones and how their properties differ from one another
hormone example: estrogen, testosterone, cortisol
precursor: cholesterol
solubility: lipophilic, bound to a protein
location of receptor: intracellular
time before onset of action: slow acting long lived
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amine hormones and how their properties differ from one another
hormone example: thyroid hormone, epinephrine
precursor: tyrosine
solubility: some are lipophilic and bound to protein, some are hydrophilic and circulate freely
location of receptor: lipophilic = intracellular, hydrophilic = membrane bound receptor
time before onset of action: lipophilic - slow acting, hydrophilic - fast acting
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how do hormones exert their activity on the target cell
membrane receptors: the cell will respond by activating or changing pre-exisiting proteins in the cytoplasm
cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors: the cell will respond by transcribing the DNA to make new mRNA and build proteins
Protein hormones: through secondary messengers
steroid hormones: through new gene transcription and protein production
membrane receptors: the cell will respond by activating or changing pre-exisiting proteins in the cytoplasm 
cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors: the cell will respond by transcribing the DNA to make new mRNA and build proteins
Protein hormones: through secondary messengers
steroid hormones: through new gene transcription and protein production
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receptors and hormones: second messenger systems: cAMP
1. non-steroid hormone (First messenger)
2. receptor protein attaches to activated enzyme
3. ATP cycles through to cAMP which is second messenger
4. effect on cellular function, such as glycogen breakdown
1. non-steroid hormone (First messenger)
2. receptor protein attaches to activated enzyme 
3. ATP cycles through to cAMP which is second messenger
4. effect on cellular function, such as glycogen breakdown
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receptors and hormones: second messenger systems: tyrosine kinase
inactive monomers in extracellular fluid
goes through dimerization
ATP turned into ADP; leads to phosphorylation ADP on the bottom ends of proteins in cytoplasm
activation after, leads to active relay protein
inactive monomers in extracellular fluid
goes through dimerization 
ATP turned into ADP; leads to phosphorylation ADP on the bottom ends of proteins in cytoplasm
activation after, leads to active relay protein
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receptors and hormones: steroid hormone receptor action in the cell
1. lipid-soluble hormone diffuses through plasma membrane
2. hormone binds with receptor in cytoplasm, forming a receptor-hormone complex
3. receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus and triggers gene transcription
4. transcribed mRNA is translated into proteins after cell activity
1. lipid-soluble hormone diffuses through plasma membrane 
2. hormone binds with receptor in cytoplasm, forming a receptor-hormone complex
3. receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus and triggers gene transcription
4. transcribed mRNA is translated into proteins after cell activity
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receptor and hormones: Second messenger systems: GPCR and ion channels
ion channel and g-protein and receptor next to each other
receptor binds to hormone
when bound ion channel opens from g-protein moving bottom part
ions flow throughwh
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what does hypothalamus regulate
body temperature
water balance
energy production
thirst
hunger
sexual behaviour
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hormone properties and how they affect receptor interactions
hormone binds to specific receptor, receptor goes to target cell which elicits a cellular response
hormone binds to specific receptor, receptor goes to target cell which elicits a cellular response
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how does the hypothalamus regulate hormone release in the posterior pituitary
a. neuronal tissue
b. regulates kidney, breast tissue, uterus, human behaviour
c. hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary
d. hypothalamic hypophyseal tract
a. neuronal tissue
b. regulates kidney, breast tissue, uterus, human behaviour
c. hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary
d. hypothalamic hypophyseal tract
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how does the hypothalamus regulate hormone release in the anterior pituitary
a. epithelial cells
b. affects breast tissue, thyroid, adrenal, gonad, various tissues
c. hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
d. hypothalamic hypophyseal portal system
a. epithelial cells 
b. affects breast tissue, thyroid, adrenal, gonad, various tissues
c. hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
d. hypothalamic hypophyseal portal system
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relationship between hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary gland
hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
hypothalamic hypophyseal portal system

hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary
hypothalamic hypophyseal tract
hypothalamus to anterior pituitary 
hypothalamic hypophyseal portal system 

hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary 
hypothalamic hypophyseal tract
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what hormones are released from the posterior pitutary and what effects do they have on the body?
the hypothalamus is connected to the posterior via the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract
hormones:
a. antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- peptide neurohormone
function: promotes water reabsorption in kidneys

b. oxytocin
- peptide neurohormone
function: promotes uterine contractions and milk excretion, makes you feel happy/comforted
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hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary
release of ADH
- dehydration
- hyperosmolarity: increased osmolarity in extracellular fluid

inhibition of ADH:
- over hydration
- hyposmoloarity: decreased osmolarity in the extracellular fluid
- alcohol
- high blood pressure
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what is diabetes insipidus
insufficent ADH, or ADH activation in the kidney
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what causes diabetes insipidus
brain tumour
brain surgery
brain injury
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what are symptoms of diabetes insipidus
producing lots of urine
urine is very dilute
dehydration
sensations of thirst
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hormone replacement theory for diabetes insipidus
replace the hormone ADH
drug is called desmopressin
its a small peptide molecule and acts on the kidneys
can be administered through a pill, injection or a nasal spray
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oxytocin and positive feedback loop
oxytocin causes the uterine muscles to contract
this pushes baby down harder to be delivered
nerve impulses sent back to brain that causes more oxytocin released
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what are parts of anterior pituitary
hypothalamus
hypothalamic-hypopseal portal system
endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary
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hormones of the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary
knowt flashcard image
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chart 2 hormones of hypothalamus and anterior with target tissues
knowt flashcard image
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role of hypothalamus
links the nervous system to the endocrine system, regulates the pituitary gland
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how does the hypothalamus regulate hormone release in the posterior pituitary
hypothalamic-hypopseal tract
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how does the hypothalamus regulate hormone release in the anterior pituitary
hypothalamic-hypopseal portal system
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What hormones are released from the posterior pituitary and what effects do they have on the body?
ADH (water balance) and Oxytocin (happy hormones, and reproduction)
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What is an example of a pharmacological therapeutic for hormone deficiency?
hormone replacement therapy
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reproductive endocrinology
ultimate purpose is to produce a cell (gamete) that can be combined with another cell to create a new organism
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chromosomes
made up of long strands of DNA and contain genetic material that makes up an organism
they form an X shape, one half is the paternal (sperm) contribution and other is maternal (oocyte) contribution
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sister chromatids
half of the chromosome is replicated and it is connected with its own copy to make sister chromatids
half of the chromosome is replicated and it is connected with its own copy to make sister chromatids
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diploid
refers to the number of distinct chromosomes, 23 chromosomes come from sperm and other 23 come from oocyte, together forms a diploid cell with 46 chromosomes
refers to the number of distinct chromosomes, 23 chromosomes come from sperm and other 23 come from oocyte, together forms a diploid cell with 46 chromosomes
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haploid
refers to the number of distinct chromosomes but only half are present gives half of DNA to daughter cell and other half to different daughter cell
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gametes
haploid cells involved in fertilization
they are made in the gonads of the parent organism
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germ line cells
cells that give rise to the gametes
these cells will eventually become gametes through the process of meiosis
they reside in the testes or the ovaries
cells that give rise to the gametes
these cells will eventually become gametes through the process of meiosis 
they reside in the testes or the ovaries
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meiosis
the process through which a diploid cell becomes a haploid gamete to be used in fertilization and create a new organism
the phases happen twice in meiosis
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interphase
cell replicates DNA, 46 distinct chromosomes, now has 2 copies of each chromosomes and each chromosome has a sister chromatid
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prophase I
homologous pairs of sister chromatids for a tetrad and exchange DNA in a crossing over event
swap certain sections of DNA
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metaphase I
sister chromatids form a line in the middle of the cell and spindle fibres connect them
homologous pairs are now separated from each other, the resulting daughter cells will have 23 distinct chromosomes that each have sister chromatid and go from 2N to N
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anaphase I
sister chromatids are pulled away from their homologous pairs to opposite sides of the cell
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telophase I and cytokinesis
cell membrane pinches in the middle to create 2 daughter cells
one that has one set of sister chromatids and the other has other set
these 2 daughter cells have a DNA compliment of N
each chromosome has a sister, it still has 46 chromosomes but only 23 distinct
2 daughter cells need to undergo meiosis II
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prophase II
chromatin clumping
these chromosomes condense in each daughter cell and a new set of spindle fibers form
the chromatids move to line up in centre of cell
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metaphase II
spindle fibers attach to each of the sister chromatids to prepare to seperate them apart
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anaphase II
sister chromatids are seperated into opposite sides of the cell
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telephase II
creates 4 different sex cells
each daughter cell now splits into 2 new daughter cells, forming 4 genetically distinct cells
these cells have 23 chromosomes, or a DNA compliment of N
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uterer
connects kidney to bladder
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bladder
stores urine and is connected to the uterer through a tube that runs through the prostate
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seminal vesicle
contributes a large amount of fluid to the semen during ejaculation
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prostate
the gland secretes enzymes and fluid to help neutralize the acidic environment of the urethra, and the vagina
without fluids the prostate gland to neutralize acidic environment of vagina, sperm would die
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vans deferens
tube connecting testes to uterer that conducts sperm during ejaculation
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ejaculatory duct
drains into the urethra
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Bulbourethral gland
releases a neutralizing and lubricating fluid into the uterer prior to ejaculation
the fluid is alkaline and is necessary to neutralize the acidic environment of the urethra that occurs after urination
prior to ejaculation
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urethra
conducts both urine and sperm to the penis and out of body
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penis
largely of erectile tissue and acts as the conduit for sperm transfer during copulation, conduit for urination
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testes
site of sperm production
produce and secrete 2 hormones, testosterone and inhibin in response to gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary
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epididymis
site of sperm maturation and storage
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fimbrea
capture the oocyte after its released by the ovary at ovulation
the fimbrea are finger like projections that sweep the oocyte into the fallopian tube
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uterine (fallopian) tube
where sperm and oocyte will meet and fertilization will occur
uterine tube contains cilia that help move the oocyte or embryo along the uterine tube of the uterus
movement of the uterine tube is regulated in part by progesterone
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ovary
site of developing female gamete
responsive to FSH and LH and it secretes estrogen and progesterone
the ovary will release the oocyte during ovulation
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uterus
muscular organ that accommodate and maintains a pregnancy
site of normal embryo implantation into the endometrium
development of the endometrium is regulated by estrogen, while the maturation of the endometrium is regulated by progesterone
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cervix
forms the connection between the vaginal canal and the uterus
secretes mucus that varies during the menstrual cycle from thin (facilitate sperm entry) to thick (prevent sperm entry)
higher estrogen levels causes cervical mucus to be thinner, while higher progesterone levels cause the cervical mucus to be thicker
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vagina
receives the penis and sperm during copulation
allows for the discharge of fluid during menstruation, and the birth of the baby
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spermatocytes
adult stem cell
developing sperm cells
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sertoli cells
support and regulate spermatogenesis
blood testes barrier
produce inhibin
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leydig cells
produce testosterone
located in the space between seminiferous tubules
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how is sperm developed (spermatogenesis)
Meiosis occurs in the testes to produce haploid gametes
a. Spermatozoa
b. Spermatids
c. 2 degree spermatocytes
d. 1 degree spermatocytes
e. Spermatogonia
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features of mature sperm
head
- nucleus
- acrosome

tail
- neck
- middle piece
- principal piece
- end piece
head 
- nucleus 
- acrosome

tail 
- neck 
- middle piece
- principal piece 
- end piece
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how is sperm development regulated by hormones and negative feedback loops
FSH - inhibin
LH - testosterone

class of hormone - steroid, comes from cholesterol
hydrophobic
intracellular is where receptors located
transported into blood by albumin
FSH - inhibin 
LH - testosterone 

class of hormone - steroid, comes from cholesterol
hydrophobic
intracellular is where receptors located
transported into blood by albumin
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what are the effects of testosterone on the body
muscle mass, lower voice, secondary hair growth, blood cell count
- growth of prostate
- secondary sex characteristics
- vocal changes
- red blood cell count
- anabolic reactions (muscle mass)
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anti-GnRH - treatment for prostate cancer
- prevents the secretion of LH and FSH
- prevents secretion of testosterone from the testes
- prevents the growth of prostate
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how are oocytes made (oogenesis)
oogonia - diploid stem cells of ovaries
begin meiosis I, stops at prophase
remains inactive in cortex of immature ovary until puberty
small number activated each month - recruited by FSH
only one continues through meiosis
oogonia - diploid stem cells of ovaries
begin meiosis I, stops at prophase 
remains inactive in cortex of immature ovary until puberty
small number activated each month - recruited by FSH
only one continues through meiosis
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how does gamete development differ between sperm and oocyte
knowt flashcard image
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what is folliculogeneis and how does it occur
folliculogenesis of the maturing oocyte
male: the cells that help sperm develop are part of the testes, they include Sertoli and Leydig cells

female: the cells that help the oocyte develop make up the follicle that surrounds the oocyte, they are called Theca and Granulosa cells

*look at week 9 lecture 1 slide 21*
folliculogenesis of the maturing oocyte 
male: the cells that help sperm develop are part of the testes, they include Sertoli and Leydig cells 

female: the cells that help the oocyte develop make up the follicle that surrounds the oocyte, they are called Theca and Granulosa cells 

*look at week 9 lecture 1 slide 21*
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what is the viability of gametes
oocytes
- usually fertilized within 12 hours of ovulation
- cannot be fertilized after 24 hours

spermatozoa
- viable for approximately 48 hours in female reproductive tract
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what are the support cells in folliculogensis
Theca cells and Granulosa cells
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what are the stages of the female reproductive cycle and how are they regulated by hormone
knowt flashcard image
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how are female hormones regulated
theca and granulose cells: produce sex steroids
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how hormones are regulated using negative and positive feedback loops
knowt flashcard image
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what are the events that occur in the uterus during the reproductive cycle
knowt flashcard image
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how menopause occurs
loss of primary follicles means less estrogen
less estrogen mens levels are so low that we lose the negative feedback effect
FSH and LH levels rise dramatically, causing strange fluctuations in primary follicle recruitment, and estrogen levels
pituitary becomes exhausted, LH and FSH levels drop
cycle ends, and menopause is reached
begins to happen between 45-55
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symptoms of menopause
hot flashes
loss of fertility
change in bone health
metabolic changes
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what does sperm require to successfully locate the oocyte
armour/protection
food
a map
help from other sperm h
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how much sperm is needed
ejaculate: 15 million/ml - 200 million/ml
reach the ovum: 50-100
fertilization: 1
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what are the stages of early embryo development
zygote
4 cell stage
morula
blastocyst (day 5 post-fertilizatior)
zygote
4 cell stage
morula
blastocyst (day 5 post-fertilizatior)
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overview of menstrual cycle
knowt flashcard image