Psych 2e Chapter 7

Cognition

Thinking that encompasses perception, learning, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory

Cognitive psychology

The study of how people think, including how thought, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving interact

Concept

A category or grouping of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories that help organize information

Prototype

The most typical instance of a concept, used as a reference point

Natural concept

A concept people form naturally through their experiences

Artificial concept

A concept defined by specific rules or features (e.g., geometric figures)

Schema / Cognitive schema

Mental frameworks that organize clusters of related concepts and guide behaviors, including event schemata or scripts

Cognitive script (Event schema)

A routine or script for performing typical events in a particular sequence

Language

A communication system using words and systematic rules (lexicon + grammar)

Lexicon

The vocabulary of a language

Grammar

The set of rules that govern how words are organized to convey meaning

Phoneme

The smallest distinct sound unit in a language

Morpheme

The smallest unit of language that carries meaning

Semantics

Rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

Syntax

Rules for organizing words into sentences

Overgeneralization

The application of grammar rules too broadly (e.g., “gooses” instead of “geese”) by children

Language Acquisition

Language develops naturally in predictable stages: preverbal sounds → first words → two-word sentences → complex sentences

Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis

Language influences thought patterns and worldview

Problem-solving strategy

A plan of action for finding a solution to a problem

Trial and error

Trying multiple possible solutions until one works

Algorithm

A step-by-step set of instructions guaranteed to produce a correct solution

Heuristic

A general decision-making or problem-solving framework or mental shortcut

Working backwards

Starting with the end goal and working in reverse to find a solution

Functional fixedness

A mental block caused by thinking of things only in terms of their typical function

Mental set

Persisting in using the same method to solve a problem even when better options exist

Anchoring bias

Relying heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for or interpret information that confirms one’s beliefs

Convergent thinking

Narrowing down multiple possibilities to find a single, correct answer

Divergent thinking

Generating many different solutions to a problem

Creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas or solutions

Analytical intelligence

Academic problem-solving ability

Creative intelligence

Ability to generate new ideas and novel solutions

Practical intelligence

Ability to solve real-world, everyday problems

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence is comprised of several distinct modalities (e.g., musical, spatial)

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Intelligence includes analytical, creative, and practical components

Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and the ability to retrieve it

Fluid intelligence

Ability to see complex relationships and solve novel problems

IQ test

A standardized assessment designed to measure intelligence compared to the norming sample

Binet–Simon

Origins of IQ testing

Stanford-Binet

And Wechsler (WAIS-IV, WISC-V) are widely used adult and children’s tests

Norming & Standardization

IQ tests must be administered to a representative sample to establish norms

Average IQ

100 (mean of standardized tests)

Genetic influences

Twin studies show strong heritability (~80% IQ correlation in identical twins reared apart)

Environmental influences

Early stimulation and socioeconomic status can affect IQ; Range of Reaction theory suggests genetics set a potential range and environment influences the outcome

Learning disability

Neurological disorders that impair reading, writing, or math, but do not reflect low intelligence

Dyslexia

Difficulty reading

Dysgraphia

Difficulty writing legibly

Dyscalculia

Difficulty with math