ETHICS Prelims

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Pagpapakatao And Other Essays In Contemporary Philosophy And Literature Of Ideas

Published in 2002 at the University of Santo Tomas (Manila)

Written by Florentino H. Hornedo

Phenomenology

Florentino H. Hornedo’s method

Kamalayan

Ayon kay Husserl

Binubuo ng:

• Malay-tao (mulat!)

• Nilalaman ng malay-tao (namamalayan ang nalalaman)

• Nalalaman → Alam at Laman

• Nasa larangan ng karanasan.

Katawan

• Bilang PAG-AARI: Huwag mong tapakan ang aking paa!

• Bilang METAPORA NG SARILI: Huwag mo ako tapakan!

Descartes

“The soul is disembodied; Thinking is represented by the soul, and the soul has the power to think even without the body.”

Husserl

The soul is NOT disembodied; Thinking is an experience

Malay-tao

Hindi siya calculator o based on syntax, isa siyang produkto ng pagka-mulat.

Conscious of Consciousness

Reaction response of the object (knowing it and being aware of it) and making meaning out of it.

Pagiging Malikhain

Ang sarili bilang isang proyekto

Bagay (products) at kahulugan (significance)

Paggawa/Pagtatrabaho

Isang likas na pangangailangan

Isang pagpapahayag ng sarili (pakinabang)

Kalooban

Metapobra ng palayok

Emmanuel Levinas

Nagsabi na “Nagtatrabaho lang ang tao para umalis sa bahay.”

Umalis sa bahay → Umalis sa comfort zone; takas sa ginhawa.

Palayok

Para kay Hornedo, ang kalooban ng tao ay isang __ kung saan makikita mo lang siya ‘pag sinilip mo ‘

Bilang Pagpapalakas

Freedom is an expression of power

Ang Pagpapalaya Bilang Pagbibigay-Lakas

Pagbibigay kakayahan

Social Dimension

Being accountable not for ourselves but usually for others.

Pananagutan

Lakas ng pandama

Sidhi ng pangangailangan

Moral (kasangkot ang iba)

Pagmamahal

umiiral sa larangan ng halaga

Pagmumura

Turing sa tao/bagay na walang halaga

Pagbibigay-loob (gift)

Katarungan

Bilang katuparan ng batas (jus)

Nakakabit sa pagmamahal (bilang unang batas ng Diyos)

Lipunan at Sarili

Likas na ugnayan

__ bago ang __

Karapatan Bilang Kaloob ng Lipunan

Malayang binibigay, ayon sa halaga ng tao

Para sa pagtubo (transcendence, development)

Proyekto Natin ang Isa’t-isa

WE Relationship

Ang tao ay tumatanggap at nagibigay ng kairalan at pag-unlad

Martin Buber and Karol Wojtyla

Nagsabi na I-Thou (ikaw) vs. I-It (ito)

Kamatayan Bilang Lakas

Ayon sa pagiging maka-kasaysayan ng tao

Heidegger

Ayon sa kaniya, “Iniisip habang buhay, isang karanasang pansarili”

Rahner

Ayon sa kaniya, “Nagbibigay pagkakataon na magpahalaga sa kalayaan”

Happening

Something that happens in man

Acting

Something which man acts upon

Human Act

Latin → Actus humanus

Stuff that we choose to do on our own will.

Telos

Every being has its own sense or purpose.

Finis Operis

End of the act taken in itself

The inherent goal or natural result of an act.

Finis Operantis

End as intented by the agent

The willed intention of the person who acts.

Personal Act

We chose to do an act, and no one can replace us from doing such an act. Therefore, we are responsible for the act

Knowledge

Elements of a Human Act

One knows the truth.

I am aware and know of what I am doing.

Voluntariness

Elements of Human Act

For its goodness one pursues the known truth.

Volition; I have decided to do something.

Freedom

One knowingly and willingly chooses.

There is an opportunity for me to use my power to choose; not forced to do it.

Object of the Act

Determined by the will as directed to the action per se. 

Fitness of the Moral Object

This means that the goodness or evil of an action is found in whether or not the object of the moral action is a fitting object.

Intention

Determined by the will as directed to the agent.

Also known as MOTIVE.

• An objectively good action, when done with an evil intention, becomes evil

Circumstance

Not a direct determinant of morality of human acts.

Affects morality by enhancing or aggravating the goodness or evil of an action.

Who

Seven Universal Circumstances

This indicates any special quality of the person involved in the moral act.

What

Seven Universal Circumstances

This indicates the quantity or quality of the moral object.

Where

Seven Universal Circumstances

This denotes the location where the act occurs.

By What Means

Seven Universal Circumstances

This considers the means employed to carry out an action.

Why

Seven Universal Circumstances

This refers to the purpose the action is done.

How

Seven Universal Circumstances

This indicates the manner by which an action is done.

When

Seven Universal Circumstances

This refers to the time element involved in the action involved, both in the quantity and quality aspect.

Constitutive

Refers to the nature of the action.

It is a natural effect.

Contingent

Based on circumstances, they may or may not happen.

It is undesired, unintended

Situation Ethics

A concept that is so centered on love that even if something is not benefiting us anymore or if it is something that is already affecting us negatively, we still have to love.

Joseph Fletcher

Who introduced Situation Ethics?

Agape

Greek concept of an all-giving love.

This love is unconditional and non-reciprocal.

Legalism

Blind observation of moral rules without being sensitive to situations

Simple deontology

Antinomianism

An “existential” view where one is always free to do whatever s/he wants in a situation.

The moral agent is random and erratic

Situationism

There is moral law, but there is only one moral law; Consequentialist

Rejects both legalism and antinomianism.

The Agape Calculus

We ought to always act so as to bring about the most love for the most people.

Pragmatism

It is practical if it works.

Effective.

Relativism

Sees how things are connected to one another; Asserts that there is no absolute, global law that applies to all people, for all time, and in all places.

Positivism

Made psychology clinical instead of physiological.

Looking at the human dimension but it is scientifically driven.

Personalism

Your decision will have to be connected to your individuality.

Derived not directly from a theory, but from our own moral position as an individual.

Philosophia

The highest act of the will towards the highest object of the mind.; love of wisdom

Thomas Aquinas

Who said this: “Philosophy is the science of the ultimate causes and principles of things through human reason alone.”

Geisteswissenschaften

Science of the spirit; is the one that affirms humanity.

Naturwissenschaften

Natural sciences; focused on the truth behind things.

Metaethics

• Investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they mean.

• The study of the origin and meaning of ethical concepts.

Voluntarism

God is in control of everything.

Objectivism

• Moral values exist essentially and objectively, as they are beyond subjective human conventions.

• They are absolute and eternal as they never change.

Golden Rule

A single principle against which we judge our other actions.

Normative Ethics

• More practical, arrives at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct.

• Covers good habits, duties, their benefits and consequences.

Virtue Theories

Encourages the formation of good habits, less emphasis on building rules.

Duty Theories

• Also known as Deontological Ethics.

• Also known as Non-consequentialist Ethics.

• Morality based on obligation.

Consequentialist Theories

• Also known as Teleological Theories (telos → end).

• Moral theories that are purpose-oriented (cost benefit oriented, good oriented).

Ethical Egoism

• Holds that an action is right if the consequences are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action.

• Individuals acting in their own self-interest.

Ethical Altruism

• Holds that an action is right if the consequences are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.

• Advocates for actions that benefit others.

Utilitarianism

• Holds that an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.

• Maximizing overall happiness or well-being.

Psychological Egoism

Every act is based from a selfish cause.

Psychological Altruism

Holds that there is an inherent psychological capacity to show benevolence to others.

Psychological Hedonism

Holds that pleasure is the driving force of actions (John Stuart Mill).

Applied Ethics

Involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment, or nuclear war.

Nietzsche

• Will to power (moral drive; decision)

• To do something according to one’s goal.

• Overcome → Transcend

Cultural Relativism

• Each culture define its norms and has a right regardless of culture.

• Depicts unique practices of a specific community that should be respected for their own context.

Universality

• Also called Conventional Relativism.

• Exact same universal standard applies directly for everyone regardless of culture.

Tough-Minded

• Commitment to experience.

• Going by the facts.

• Materialist, empiricist, pessimistic, irreligious, sensationalistic, fatalistic, pluralistic, skeptical.

Tender-Minded

• Taste for a priori principles.

• Going by the principle.

• Rationalistic, idealistic, optimistic, dogmatic, monistic, religious.

Pragmatism

• The challenge is to reconcile “the scientific loyalty to facts” with “the old confidence in human values and the resultant spontaneity, whether of the religious or of the romantic type.”

• The mediating philosophy that enables us to overcome the distinction between the tender-minded and the tough-minded.

Pragmatic Truth

• True ideas are those that we can assimilate, validate, corroborate, and verify.

• Truth is what works.

Determinism

Claims that the future is already contained in the present, it leads to pessimism as it means that evil actions are necessary and unavoidable and should not be regretted. But we experience the judgment of regret.

Indeterminism

There are real possibilities in the world and our action can make a decisive difference as to whether good or evil will triumph.

Change, Surprise, and Chance

Are regular parts of our experience.

Aguas

Who said this: “The true is whatever good and what is right. Truth is one specie of good, and not a category distinct from good. The true is only expedient in the way of our thinking, just as the ‘right’ is only the expedient in the way of our behaving… expedient… in the long run and on the whole.”

James Rachels

Who introduced Relativism?

Elements of Moral Philosophy

What was the name of the book that introduced Relativism?