Understanding Arguments and Rhetorical Fallacies

Demonstrative Arguments

Aim to prove a conclusion using logical structures.

Supportive Arguments

Use generalization, analogy, and cause-effect reasoning to support a claim.

Logic

Focuses on reason and evidence to establish a conclusion.

Rhetoric

Uses emotionally charged language to persuade and influence opinions.

Rhetorical Force

Words with strong psychological impact make arguments more persuasive.

Euphemism

Making something sound better (e.g., 'collateral damage').

Dysphemism

Making something sound worse (e.g., 'civilian deaths').

Rhetorical Analogy

Using biased comparisons.

Innuendo

Implying something negative without stating it directly.

Loaded Question

Framing a question with an assumption (e.g., 'When did you stop cheating?').

Hyperbole

Exaggeration for effect.

Stereotyping

Attributing oversimplified traits to a group.

Ridicule

Mocking to dismiss an idea.

Sarcasm

Mocking to dismiss an idea.

Weaseler

Using vague wording to avoid commitment.

Downplayer

Undermining importance (e.g., 'just a so-called expert').

Proof Surrogate

Implying evidence without providing it (e.g., 'Clearly, this is true.').

Argumentum Ad Hominem

Dismissing an argument by attacking the person rather than the idea.

Abusive Ad Hominem

Insulting the person (e.g., 'Al Gore will say anything for attention!').

Circumstantial Ad Hominem

Questioning motives (e.g., 'He only supports green energy because he profits from it.').

Inconsistency Ad Hominem

Pointing out past contradictions (e.g., 'She voted for the war, now she's against it—hypocrite!').

Poisoning the Well

Discrediting a source before they speak (e.g., 'Don't listen to him; he lies about everything.').

Guilt by Association

Rejecting an idea based on its association with a disliked group (e.g., 'That sounds like something left-wing professors would say.').

Genetic Fallacy

Dismissing an argument because of its origin (e.g., 'Religion started with ignorant people, so it must be false.').

Straw Man Fallacy

Misrepresenting an argument to make it easier to attack (e.g., 'You want to tip 20%? Why not give away all our money?').

False Dilemma

Presenting only two extreme choices when others exist (e.g., 'Either we send more troops or terrorists will attack us!').

Perfectionist Fallacy

If something isn't perfect, reject it (e.g., 'We can't stop all crime, so why try?').

Line-Drawing Fallacy

If we can't draw a precise boundary, the issue is dismissed (e.g., 'When is a movie 'too violent'? You can't say, so there should be no limits.').

Misplacing the Burden of Proof

Expecting others to disprove a claim rather than providing evidence for it (e.g., 'Can you prove the president's birth certificate isn't fake?').

Appeal to Ignorance

Arguing something must be true because it hasn't been disproven (e.g., 'You can't prove the flood didn't happen, so it did!').

Begging the Question

Circular reasoning where the conclusion is assumed in the premise (e.g., 'The president wouldn't lie. So he must be telling the truth.').

Appeals to Emotion

Using emotions instead of logic to persuade.

Argument from Outrage

Using anger instead of facts (e.g., 'Apple exploits child labor! Their products must be terrible!').

Scare Tactics

Using fear to push a conclusion (e.g., 'Buy Michelin tires or risk your kids' lives.').

Peer Pressure

Manipulating social acceptance (e.g., 'If you don't support the war, move to another country!').

Appeal to Pity

Using sympathy instead of logic (e.g., 'Hire Jane—she really needs this job.').

Apple Polishing

Using flattery (e.g., 'You're too smart not to see that capitalism is superior.').

Guilt Tripping

Using guilt (e.g., 'You must invite her to your wedding!').

Appeal to Envy/Jealousy

Using resentment to manipulate (e.g., 'Don't give Colin the job—he's had everything handed to him!').

Irrelevant Conclusions

Arguments that distract rather than address the issue.

Two Wrongs Make a Right

Justifying bad behavior with more bad behavior (e.g., 'They overcharge us all the time, so why not steal?').

Wishful Thinking

Assuming something is true because we want it to be (e.g., 'I hope I'll win American Idol, so I will.').

Denial

Refusing to accept reality (e.g., 'I didn't miss THAT many classes!').

Ducking with Irrelevance

Avoiding an issue by distracting (e.g., 'People like the president. Sure, polls say he's popular, but they're lying.').

Fallacies of Induction

These arguments attempt to increase the probability of their conclusion but fail.

Fallacies of Generalization

Types of inductive fallacies that involve drawing conclusions from insufficient evidence.

Hasty Generalization

Drawing a conclusion from too few cases. Example: 'The food in this town is bad. I had a terrible meal here.'

Argument by Anecdote

Using a single personal story to generalize.

Fallacy of Small Sample

Making conclusions from an insufficient sample.

Generalizing from Exceptional Cases

Using atypical cases to generalize.

Biased Sample

Basing a conclusion on a non-representative sample.

Self-Selection Fallacy

Using data where participants volunteered.

Accident

Applying a general rule to an exception.

Weak Analogy

Comparing two things that aren't strongly related.

Fallacious Appeal to Authority

Trusting a non-expert's opinion.

Fallacious Appeal to Popularity

Assuming something is true because it's widely believed.

Fallacious Appeal to Common Practice

Justifying something because it's commonly done.

Fallacious Appeal to Tradition

Assuming something is good because it's traditional.

Bandwagon Fallacy

Arguing that something must be right because it's popular.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

Assuming an event caused another just because it came first.

Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

Assuming simultaneous events must be related.

Overlooking Regression

Believing a treatment worked when a condition naturally improved.

Overlooking Random Variation

Believing an intervention worked when results fluctuated naturally.

Overlooking Reversed Causation

Mixing up cause and effect.

Overlooking Coincidence

Assuming correlation means causation.

Overlooking a Common Cause

Ignoring a third factor.

Slippery Slope

Assuming one small step will lead to extreme consequences.

Untestable Explanation

Making claims that cannot be verified.

Inductive arguments

Should use strong evidence.

Correlation

Does not imply causation.

Good generalizations

Require representative samples.

Emotional appeals

Should be avoided in reasoning.

Weak analogies

Should be avoided in reasoning.