scientific behaviorism
holds the premise that psychology is an objective, natural science, and therefore is the study of observable and measurable human (and animal) behavior
behavior therapy
the therapeutic application of scientific behaviorism
introspection
the subjective observation of one’s own mental state
counterconditioning
the pairing of a positive (and often incompatible) stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a negative or undesirable response (e.g., fear)
applied behavior analysis
a clinical term referring to a behavioral approach based on operant conditioning principles
operant conditioning (or instrumental condtioning)
a form of behavior modification that involves manipulation of behavioral antecedents and consequences
positive reinforcement
occurs when a specific behavior is followed by Thorndike’s satisfier, and therefore the likelihood of the specific behavior is strengthened
occurs when a stimulus is applied that increases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
stimulus-response (SR) theory
no cognitive or covert intervening variables mediate the relationship between the stimulus and response
neobehavioristic mediational SR model
involves classical conditioning principles
classical conditioning (or respondent conditioning)
involves an association or linking of one environmental stimulus with another
unconditioned stimulus
one that naturally produces a specific physical-emotional response
positive punishment (aka punishment or aversive conditioning)
occurs when a stimulus is applied (usually called an aversive stimulus) that reduces the likelihood of the behavior it follows
negative punishment (aka response cost)
occurs when the removal of a stimulus decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
negative reinforcement
occurs when the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
the strengthening of a behavioral response by reducing or eliminating an aversive stimulus (like fear and anxiety)
unconditioned response
a reflexive fear response
conditioned response
response to the conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus
involves a learned association with the unconditioned stimulus
stimulus generalization
the extension or generalization of a conditioned fear response to new settings, situations, or objects
stimulus discrimination
occurs when a new or different stimulus doesn’t elicit a conditioned fear response
extinction
involves the gradual elimination of a conditioned response
occurs when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without a previously associated unconditioned stimulus
spontaneous recovery
occurs when an old response suddenly returns after having been successfully extinguished or counterconditioned
functional behavior assessment (FBA)
formal assessment of behavior contingencies
behavioral ABCs
antecedents, behavior, consequences
antecedents
everything that happens just before maladaptive behavior is observed
behavior
the problem as defined in concrete behavioral terms; e.g., rather than being called an “anger problem” it’s “yelling or swearing six times a day and punching others twice daily”)
consequences
everything that happens immediately following the problem behavior occurs
operational definitions
specific, measurable characteristics of client symptoms and goals are crucial behavioral assessment components
self-monitoring
occurs when clients observe and record their own behaviors
contingency management (CM)
an analysis of naturally occurring behavioral consequences in the client’s physical and social environments
backward behavior modification
reinforcing undesirable behaviors and extinguishing desirable behaviors
continuous reinforcement
reinforcement is provided every time the desired (target) behavioral response occurs
ex. a child gets a star for every completed homework assignment
fixed ratio reinforcement
reinforcement is provided after a predetermined number of desired behaviors
ex. a child gets a star after every fourth completed homework assignment
fixed interval reinforcement
reinforcement is provided after a predetermined time period, as long as the target behavior has occurred at least once
ex. a child gets a star each week, as long as one homework assignment was completed
variable ratio reinforcement
reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of target behaviors occur
ex. a child gets a star after having completed an unpredictable number of homework assignments (surprise rewards)
variable interval reinforcement
reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable time period, as long as the target behavior has occurred at least once
ex. a child gets a star after unpredictable time periods pass (sometimes after 1 day; other times 3 days; other times 1 week; etc.)
token economy
patients or students earn points or poker chips (aka symbolic rewards) for positive or desirable behaviors
tokens function like money, to obtain goods (e.g., goof or toys) or privileges (e.g., computer or recreational time
fading
in an ideal behavioral setting, reinforcements and punishments would be tightly controlled and then, after desirable behavior patterns are well established, behavioral contingencies would be slowly decreased
fading helps to generalize learning from over time and across settings
aversive conditioning
term used to describe the use of punishment for behavior modification purposes
can reduce undesirable or maladaptive behavior
behavioral activation (activity scheduling)
working with clients to schedule activities that increase the rate of naturally occurring positive reinforcements
progressive muscle relaxation (PMR)
initially based on the assumption that muscular tension is an underlying cause of a variety of mental and emotional problems
currently conceptualized as either a counterconditioning or extinction procedure
systematic desensitization
a combination of Jones’s deconditioning approach and Jacobson’s PMR procedure
subjective units of distress (SUDs)
a measuring system in which clients rate each fear-inducing situation or object on a 0 to 100 scale (0 = no distress; 100 = total distress)
exposure treatment
based on the principle that clients are best treated by exposure to the very thing they want to avoid (i.e., the stimulus that evokes intense fear, anxiety, or other painful emotions)
imaginal exposure
mental imagery
allows clients to complete treatment without leaving their therapist’s office
in vivo exposure
direct exposure to the feared stimulus
can be more complex (e.g., going to a dental office to provide exposure for a client with a dental phobia)
massed exposure
clients are directly exposed to feared stimuli during a single prolonged session (e.g., one 3-hour session)`
spaced exposure
clients are slowly and incrementally exposed to feared stimuli during a series of shorter sessions (such as five 1-hour sessions)
virtual reality exposure
a procedure wherein clients are immersed in a real-time computer-generated virtual environment
has been empirically evaluated as an alternative to imaginal or in vivo exposure in cases of acrophobia (fear of heights), flight phobia, spider phobia, and other anxiety disorders
interoceptive exposure
identical to other exposure techniques except that the target exposure stimuli are internal physical cues or somatic sensations
response prevention
involves therapists guiding and supporting clients to not engage in an avoidance response
ex. clients with OCD are prevented from washing their hands following exposure to a “contaminated” object
participant modeling
social imitation
skills training
an approach primarily based on skill deficit psychopathology models; it involves using behavioral techniques to teach clients new skills
assertiveness
a social competence that involves being able to stand up for your rights, while not infringing on the rights of others
passive
individuals behave submissively; they say yes when they want to say no, avoid speaking up and asking for instructions or directions, and let others take advantage of them
aggressive
individuals dominate others, trying to get their way through coercive means
assertive
individuals speak up, express feelings, and actively seek to meet their own needs without dominating others
assertiveness training
individual, group, or self-help treatment for social difficulties
common social behaviors targeted in assertiveness training are
(a) introducing oneself to strangers
(b) giving and receiving compliments
(c) saying no to requests from others
(d) making requests of others
(e) speaking up or voicing an opinion
(f) maintaining social conversations
instruction
teaching clients to use assertive eye contact, body posture, voice tone, and verbal delivery
feedback
therapists or group members give clients feedback regarding other’s efforts at assertive behavior
behavior rehearsal or role playing
clients practice assertive behaviors, such as asking for help or expressing disagreement
coaching
therapists whisper instructions in the client’s ear as role-play progresses
modeling
therapists or group members demonstrate appropriate assertive behaviors
social reinforcement
therapists or group members offer positive feedback and support for improved assertive behaviors
relaxation training
relaxation training can reduce anxiety in social situations and increase skill acquisition
problem-solving therapy (PST)
behavior treatment that focuses on how to approach and solve personal problems
two main components
problem orientation
problem-solving style
problem orientation
involves teaching clients to have positive attitudes toward problem solving
attitudes include: (a) seeing problems as a challenge or opportunity, (b) seeing problems as solvable, (c) believing in one’s own ability to solve problems, and (d) recognizing that effective problem solving requires time and effort
problem-solving style
refers to how individuals approach social problems
in PST, clients taught a rational problem-solving style that includes four steps
problem definition, generating alternatives, decision-making, solution implementation and verification
problem definition
clarifying a problem, identifying goals, and identifying obstacles
generating alternatives
brainstorming potential solutions for overcoming obstacles and solving the problem
decision-making
predicting likely outcomes, conducting a cost-benefit analysis, and developing a solution plan (means-ends thinking or consequential thinking are alternative names for this part of the process)
solution implementation and verification
trying out the solution, monitoring outcomes, and determining success
harm reduction
help clients consider less violent or less risky behaviors