APHG EXAM VOCAB CRAM

Agglomeration

The clustering of businesses or industries in a particular area to benefit from shared services, labor, or infrastructure.

Break-of-bulk point

A location where goods are transferred from one mode of transportation to another, such as ports or rail terminals.

Brownfields

Abandoned or underused industrial and commercial sites that may have environmental contamination.

Colonialism

The policy of acquiring and maintaining colonies, often for economic exploitation and cultural or political dominance.

Commodity Theory

The idea that goods become more valuable when they are perceived as scarce or exclusive.

Comparative advantage

The ability of a country, region, or business to produce goods or services at a lower opportunity cost than competitors.

Complementary advantage

When two regions satisfy each other's needs through trade, benefiting both economies.

Core countries

Wealthy, industrialized nations that dominate global trade, finance, and technology (e.g., U.S., Germany, Japan).

Debt crisis

A situation where a country cannot repay its external debt, leading to economic instability and reliance on international financial institutions.

Dependency theory

A model suggesting that global economic disparities are maintained by the dependence of less developed countries on wealthier nations.

Economies of scale

Cost advantages gained as production increases, lowering per-unit costs.

Ecotourism

Environmentally responsible tourism that aims to conserve natural areas and benefit local communities

EU (European Union)

a political and economic union of European countries promoting trade, economic stability, and regional integration

Export-processing zones

Areas in developing countries where governments offer incentives for foreign companies to set up manufacturing and export-oriented businesses.

Fertility rates

The average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime.

Footloose

Industries that can locate anywhere due to minimal location constraints, such as software development or financial services.

Fordism

A system of mass production pioneered by Henry Ford, characterized by assembly lines and standardized products.

Formal economy

The regulated sector of the economy that includes taxed and legally recognized businesses.

Fossil fuels

Nonrenewable energy sources such as coal, oil, and natural gas, formed from ancient organic matter.

Free trade agreements

Agreements between countries that reduce or eliminate tariffs and trade barriers to encourage economic exchange.

Gender empowerment

The process of increasing women's participation and decision-making in economic, political, and social life

Gender Inequality Index (GII)

A measure of gender disparities in health, education, and labor force participation.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total value of goods and services produced within a country in a given year.

Gross National Income (GNI)

The total domestic and foreign output claimed by residents of a country, including net income from abroad

Gross National Product (GNP)

The total economic output of a country, including goods and services produced by its citizens domestically and abroad

Growth poles

Economic development centers that stimulate growth in surrounding areas.

High technology industries

Sectors focused on cutting-edge innovation, such as information technology, biotechnology, and aerospace.

Human Development Index (HDI)

A measure of human progress based on life expectancy, education, and per capita income.

Imperialism

The practice of extending a nation's influence over others through diplomacy, military force, or economic dominance.

Income distribution

The way national income is divided among different social groups and individuals.

Industrialization

The process of transitioning from an agricultural-based economy to one dominated by manufacturing and industry.

Infant mortality rates

The number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births in a given year.

Informal economy

The unregulated sector of the economy, including street vendors and unregistered businesses.

International division of labor

The specialization of different countries in various economic activities based on comparative advantage.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

A global organization providing financial assistance and policy advice to countries facing economic crises.

Just-in-time delivery

A production strategy where materials are received only as needed, reducing inventory costs.

Labor-market participation

The percentage of the working-age population engaged in the labor force.

Least cost theory (Alfred Weber)

A theory that explains industrial location based on minimizing costs related to transportation, labor, and agglomeration.

Literacy rates

The percentage of a population that can read and write at a functional level.

Manufacturing

The large-scale production of goods using labor, machines, and raw materials.

Maquiladores

Factories in Mexico, typically near the U.S. border, that assemble imported materials for export.

Markets

Places where buyers and sellers interact to exchange goods and services.

Mercosur

A South American trade bloc promoting economic integration among member countries.

Microloans

Small-scale financial loans given to entrepreneurs, typically in developing countries, to promote business growth.

Multiplier effects

Economic growth that results from an initial investment, stimulating additional economic activity.

Neoliberal policies

Market-oriented policies that emphasize free trade, privatization, and deregulation.

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, a group that coordinates oil production and prices.

Offshoring

The relocation of business operations to another country for lower costs.

Outsourcing

Contracting work to external companies, often in lower-cost regions.

Periphery countries

Less developed nations with lower economic activity and weaker infrastructure.

Post-Fordist methods of production

Flexible, specialized production strategies that replace mass production techniques.

Primary sector

The part of the economy that extracts natural resources, such as farming, fishing, and mining.

Public transportation projects

Infrastructure developments aimed at improving urban mobility and reducing traffic congestion.

Quaternary sector

The knowledge-based sector, including IT, research, and finance.

Quinary sector

The highest-level economic activities, such as government leadership and corporate decision-making.

Renewable energy

Energy sources that can be replenished, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power.

Reproductive health

Health services related to pregnancy, childbirth, and contraception.

Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth

A five-stage model describing how economies progress from traditional to high-mass consumption.

Rust Belt

A U.S. region characterized by industrial decline and economic downturn.

Secondary sector

The part of the economy involved in manufacturing and construction.

Semi-periphery countries

Nations between core and periphery, with mixed levels of development.

Service sector

The tertiary sector focused on providing services rather than goods.

Small-scale finance

Financial services for small businesses and entrepreneurs.

Special economic zones

Areas where business and trade laws differ from the rest of the country to attract investment.

Tariffs

• Taxes on imported goods to protect domestic industries.

Tertiary sector

The part of the economy focused on services like retail, healthcare, and education.

UN’s Sustainable Development Goals

A set of global objectives aimed at reducing poverty and promoting sustainability.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

A global organization that regulates international trade

Affordability

the ability of individuals or families to afford housing, goods, and servieces in an urban area, often influenced by income levels and cost of living

African City Model

a model of urban structure that exxplains the spatial layout of cities in Africa, typically featuring a colonial CBD, a traditional CBD, and a market zone, with sectors of ethnic neighborhoods and informal settlements

Air Quality

the degree to which to which the air in a particular area is clean or polluted, often measured by levels of pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter

Bid-Rent Theory

a theory that explained how land value and rent change as one moves away form the Central Business District (CBD), with land prices decreasing with distance

Big Box Rental

large retail stores or warehouses, such as Walmart or Home Depot, that dominate suburban landscapes and commercial real estate

Blockbusting

a practice in which real estate agents stir up racial fears to encourage white property owners to sell their homes quickly, often leading to segregation and urban decline

Boomburbs

rapidly growing suburban cities that maintain suburban characteristics but have populations comparable to large urban cities

Borchert’s Model

a model of urban evolution in the US based on transportation advancements, identifying five epochs: Sail-Wagon, Iron house, Steel Rail, Auto-Air-Amenity, and High-Tech

Brownfields

abandoned or underused industrial and commercial sites that may be contaminated by hazardous waste or pollution

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

a model that describes urban land use as a series of concentric rings surrounding the CBD, with different socioeconomic zones radiatng outwards

Central Business District

the core commercial and business center for a city, characterized by high land values, skyscrapers, and dense development

Christaller’s Central Place Theory

a theory that explains the distribution of services and settlements in hierachical pattern based on market areas

City government

the administrative organization responsible for governing a city, managing public services, and enforcing laws

City infrastructure

the foundational systems of a city, including transportation, utilities, sewage, water supply, and communication networks

City-States

independent, sovereign cities that function as states, historically seen in ancient Greece (e.g., Athens, Sparta)

Climate change

long-term shifts in temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns, often attributed to human activities like fossil fuel consumption.

County government

a level of local government responsible for governing a county, overseeing infastructure, public, services, and law enforcement

De facto segregation

segregation that occurs without explicit legal enforcement, often due to historical, social and economic factors

Decentralization

the redistribution of population, industry, and government from central urban areas to suburban and rural locations

Deurbanization

the decline of urban populations as people move to rural or suburban areas, often due to economic changes or lifestyle preferences

Disamenity zones

areas within a city with limited access to services, often characterized by poverty, crime, and substandard housing

Ecological footprint

a measure of the environmental impact of human activities, representing the amount of natural resources consumed

Ecumene

the inhabited or permanently settled portions of the Earth's surface where people have established communities

Edge cities

urban areas located on the outskirts of large cities, characterized by concentrations of office space, retail and entertainment

Eminent Domain

the power of the government to take private property for public use, often with compensation

Energy Use

the consumption of energy resources, including fossil fuels and renewable resources, in urban development and daily life

Exurbs

areas beyond the suburbs that are semi-rural but still connected to the urban economy and commute networks

Farmland protection policies

regulations designed to prevent urban sprawl from encroaching on agricultural land

Favelas

informal settlements or slums, particularly in Brazil, characterized by poor housing conditions and lack of basic services

Food Deserts

urban or rural areas with limited access to affordable, nutritious food, often due to a lack of grocery stores

Functional Fragmentation of Govt

the division of governmental responsibilities among various local, regional, and national agencies

Galactic City Model

a model that describes modern cities as decentralized with multiple centers of economic activity, often influenced by automobile dependency