Intro To Psych: Chapter 6

Learning

What is the main distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning links two stimuli the learner does not control, whereas operant conditioning links a voluntary behavior with its consequences.

In classical conditioning, what kind of behavior is typically involved?

Respondent (automatic, reflexive) behavior to a stimulus.

Operant conditioning teaches an organism to associate what two elements?

Its own voluntary behavior with the resulting consequence (reinforcement or punishment).

Which psychologist is most closely associated with the theory of operant conditioning?

B. F. Skinner.

Which behavioral principle, formulated by Thorndike, underlies operant conditioning?

The Law of Effect: behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened; those followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened.

According to operant conditioning, what generally happens to a behavior that produces a pleasant consequence?

The behavior becomes more likely to occur again.

In operant terminology, what does the word “positive” mean?

Something is added or presented following a behavior.

In operant terminology, what does the word “negative” mean?

Something is removed or taken away following a behavior.

What does “reinforcement” mean in operant conditioning?

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

What does “punishment” mean in operant conditioning?

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

What is a Skinner box and what is it used to measure?

An operant conditioning chamber where an animal can perform an action (e.g., press a lever) to obtain a reward; it records response rates.

Give an everyday example of positive reinforcement.

Receiving a paycheck for showing up to work.

Give an everyday example of negative reinforcement.

Fastening a seatbelt to stop the car’s beeping alarm.

What is positive punishment? Provide an example.

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior, e.g., scolding a student for texting in class.

What is negative punishment? Provide an example.

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior, e.g., taking away a child’s toy for misbehaving.

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

Primary reinforcers satisfy innate biological needs; secondary reinforcers acquire value through association with primary reinforcers.

List three examples of primary reinforcers.

Food, water, sleep (sex or pleasurable touch also acceptable).

Why is money considered a secondary reinforcer?

It has no innate value but becomes reinforcing because it can be exchanged for primary or other secondary reinforcers.

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved.

Name the two broad categories of reinforcement schedules.

Continuous reinforcement and partial (intermittent) reinforcement.

What characterizes continuous reinforcement?

The behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, producing rapid learning but rapid extinction if reinforcement stops.

What is partial (intermittent) reinforcement?

A schedule of reinforcement where the behavior is reinforced only some of the time, leading to slower learning but greater resistance to extinction.

What is the key difference between fixed and variable schedules?

Fixed schedules have a set, predictable requirement; variable schedules have changing, unpredictable requirements.

What distinguishes interval schedules from ratio schedules?

Interval schedules are based on time elapsed; ratio schedules are based on the number of responses performed.

Provide an example of a fixed interval schedule.

Receiving a weekly paycheck at the same time each Friday.

Provide an example of a variable interval schedule.

Checking for new email messages that arrive at unpredictable times.

Which schedule typically produces the highest, steadiest response rate?

Variable ratio schedule (e.g., gambling).

How does a fixed ratio schedule affect the response pattern?

It produces a high rate of responding with a brief pause after reinforcement (e.g., factory piece-rate pay).

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and is not demonstrated until there is incentive to do so.

What is a cognitive map?

A mental representation of the layout of an environment, used to navigate it.

According to research, why might pathological gamblers be driven to gamble in terms of neurochemistry?

They may gamble to elevate abnormally low levels of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter linked to arousal and thrill.

What is the psychological definition of learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

Which two innate behavior categories are NOT considered learning?

Reflexes and instincts.

How do reflexes differ from instincts?

Reflexes are simple, automatic motor/neural reactions involving specific body parts and lower CNS centers; instincts are more complex, involve the whole organism, and rely on higher brain areas.

What is associative learning?

Learning that occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.

Name the three behaviorist approaches to learning covered in Chapter 6.

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

In operant conditioning, what is learned?

An association between a behavior (response) and its consequence.

Define classical conditioning.

A learning process in which two stimuli become associated so that one stimulus comes to elicit a response originally produced by the other stimulus.

What is observational learning (modeling)?

Learning by watching others and then imitating their actions.

In classical conditioning, what is a Neutral Stimulus (NS)?

A stimulus that has not been paired with the unconditioned stimulus and initially elicits no response.

Give the definition of an Unconditioned Stimulus (US).

A stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response without prior learning (e.g., food).

What is an Unconditioned Response (UR)?

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation to food).

Define Conditioned Stimulus (CS).

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

What is a Conditioned Response (CR)?

A learned response to the previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus.

What term describes the initial phase when a NS becomes a CS?

Acquisition.

When the CS is presented without the US and the CR weakens, what process is occurring?

Extinction.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

Explain stimulus generalization in classical conditioning.

Responding with the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

What is habituation?

Learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change.

Describe higher-order (second-order) conditioning.

A procedure in which an established CS is paired with a new neutral stimulus, so the new stimulus becomes a second CS that elicits the CR without the original CS.

Why is classical conditioning biologically adaptive?

It helps organisms survive and reproduce by responding to environmental cues that signal food, danger, or mates.

How can classical conditioning principles be applied to treat phobias?

Through exposure or systematic desensitization therapy, which uses extinction or new conditioning to reduce unwanted responses.

Who applied classical conditioning to human emotions in the Little Albert study?

John B. Watson.

What was the main finding from the Little Albert experiment?

A child could be conditioned to fear a white rat, and the fear generalized to other furry objects. (This demonstrated that emotions, such as fear, can be learned through classical conditioning.)

According to Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, what four steps are required for modeling to occur?

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Define vicarious reinforcement.

An observer becomes more likely to imitate a behavior after seeing the model rewarded for it.

Define vicarious punishment.

An observer becomes less likely to imitate a behavior after seeing the model punished for it.

What did Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment demonstrate about aggression?

Children imitate aggressive behavior toward a doll, especially when the adult model is rewarded or not punished, showing observational learning’s influence on antisocial behavior.