ASCI 271 Exam 1

Ethology

Study of behavior, it's cause and biological function

300 BC

Aristotle published observations and ideas about animal behavior

1676

Biologist John Ray published text on instinctive behavior of birds

Mid 1700s

French naturalists published on instincts of animals

Mid 1800s

Douglas Spaulding published papers on instinct vs experience
Charles Darwin also contributed during this time

Behavioristic approach

Controlled experiments in lab settings — about the mechanism of learning and acquisition of behavior

Naturalistic approach

Observation of animals in the wild — instinctive, innate and adaptive behaviors

What is the cause of behavior

Causation, immediate and on the animal

How does the behavior develop during ontogeny

During the animal's life, on the animal

What is the function of the behavior

Evolution, more long term

How does the behavior develop during phylogeny

How does the behavior evolve the animal, more long term

Fixed Action Patterns (FAP)

Instinctive responses that occurred reliably

Comparative ethology

Looking at animals as individuals

Social ethology

Social groups of animals, social structure

Behavioral ecology developed in 1970s

Studies evolutionary and ecological basis of behaviors

Cognitive ethology

What animals perceived, felt and know in relation to their behavior

Applied ethology

Study of behavior of domestic animals

Applied ethology areas of concern

Animal welfare
Optimizing production
Behavioral controls
Behavioral disorders

Behavioral disorders are caused by

Malfunctioning equipment and poor human management

Nature

Instincts and genetics

Nurture

Environment raise in and learned behaviors

Genetic effect on behavior

Genes carry instructions for behavior
Are not predisposed
Influenced by environmental factors

Principles required for evolution

Variation must exist in the behavior
Some variation must be of genetic origin
Natural selection of behavior occurs

function of behavior

Survival of the individual
The benefit is ultimately measured by fitness

Optimal behavior

Maximum benefits with minimal costs enable greater fitness

Domestication

Animals care, breeding, etc subject to control of humans over multiple generations to point that care is dependent on us rather than the wild

Characteristics of domesticated animals

Herbivores or omnivores
Have desirable physical traits for humans (meat, easy to manage)
Social behaviors with no strong mating bond

Brain

Utilizes info from both internal and external stimuli and determines appropriate behavior

Single cell simple behavior

Receptor neuron acts directly on effector

Monosynaptic

1 - sensory neuron synapses with motor neuron
2 - motor neuron acts on effector

Polysynaptic

At least one interneuron between sensory and motor neurons

Parallel processing

Signal goes along multiple pathways that perform different types of analysis simultaneously (divergence) and then act on effector (convergence)

Afferent nerves

Carry signals from PNS to CNS

Efferent nerves

Carry signals from CNS to PNS

Medulla

Connect brain to spinal cord
Controls the autonomic functions like respiration

Cerebellum

Coordinate motor outputs

Hypothalamus

Maintain general homeostasis

Thalamus

Relay signals and process information (computer)

Amygdala

Process info related to emotion

Frontal lobe

reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving

Parietal lobe

movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli

Occipital lobe

visual processing

Temporal lobe

perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech

Sympathetic NS

Fight or flight
Functions when quick actions are needed
Increase heart rate, widens bronchial passage, increases vision, perspiration and diverts blood flow from GI tract to muscles needed for exercising

parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and digest
Slows heart rate, stimulates salivary gland secretion and increases intestinal activity

Modal Action Pattern (MAP)

FAP
Sequence of behaviors triggered initially by a particular stimuli, some variation occurs
Ex \= mating rituals and capturing prey

Central Pattern Generator (CPG)

Part of CNS generates oscillation of neural activity which influences the motor system
Ex \= walking, dog scratching with leg

Motivation

Internal process that causes and directs behavior
Interaction of internal and external variables

Motivation changes

Reactions

Emotional state changes

Intensity

Hormones change

Behaviors

Modulation of reflexes

Central emotion triggers reflex but there's a hierarchal control about strength of response

Classical ethnological approach of motivation

Motivation increases with length of time since last completed
Specific energy underlying motivation accumulates until behavior is performed

Biopsychological approach of motivation

Behavior occurs due to observable physiological events in the body, external stimuli and context of stimuli

Function of learning

Helps to predict and control future events

Learning

Allows animal to respond to cues before the relevant event happens

Cognition

Means of processing information

One event learning

Reaction of an animal to an event is due to previous encounter with said event

Habituation

Decreased response to stimuli due to repeated prevention
Ex \= rustling leaves

Sensitization

Animal encounters emotionally charged stimuli
Ex \= haunted house (already scared so more likely to jump if you hear a noise)

Associative learning

Animal associates one event with another

Classical conditioning

Animal associates two events
Pavlovian conditioning

CS - US - R

Bell evokes idea of food which elicits salivation (soon CS - R)
Ex \=
Monkeys expecting bananas when given reward
Rats given food with nauseous agent

Instrumental conditioning

Behavior of an animal is dependent on previous outcomes of said behavior (pleasant or unpleasant)
Performance of behavior in presence of stimulus results in event

Reinforcement

Results in an increased probability that response will occur

Positive reinforcement

Adding a stimulus that increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future
Ex \= treats, praise

Negative reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future
Ex \= alarm clock or avoiding an invisible fence

Punishment

Reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future

Positive punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus
Ex \= hitting, yelling

negative punishment (omission training)

Removing a positive reinforcer
Ex \= withholding treat

Extinction

Refers to the animal's ability to relearn the extinct behavior even if they haven't been exposed to stimulus in a long time once a reinforcer appears
Doesn't forget what was learned, just doesn't want to do it anymore without reinforcer

Timing of learning

Reinforcer must occur shortly after event

Strength of reinforcer

Association more easily formed with stronger reinforcer

Strength of stimulus

Stronger stimulus, stronger response
Species specific
Frequency animal has experienced it

Predispositions of learning

Innate learning preferences of the animal

Social learning

Animals tend to react to environment similarly to other animals

Imitation

Animal learns completely new behavior by imitating other animals (rare)

Partial reinforcement extinction effect

Reinforcement in a random manner harder to extinguish
Ex \= feed in random manner, dog doesn't know when food is going to come so begs every time

Social behaviors

Communication
Play
Reproductive
Aggressive

Mutualism

Each individual achieves some benefit from interacting
Ex \= foraging birds, pack hunting wolves

Altruistic behaviors

Individual pays a cost to help another
Ex \= worker bees not reproducing so queen can

Kin-selected altruism

performed to benefit genetic relatives, and thus the altruist's genes

Altrusim between non-relatives

Generally happens if time allows for reciprocation
Natural selection at a group level — work together to find food or play so they all survive

Why do animals form groups

Safety in numbers
Help in detecting danger
Increased chance of obtaining food

Costs of group living

Share food they discover
Less access to food

Some animals compete for resources while others do not defend them

Net benefit to competition must be positive

Scramble competition

Try to eat all food before others get access

Territorial defense

Prevent others from access to food source

Epimeletic behaviors

Care-giving behaviors between offspring and parents

Parent-offspring interaction

Strong motivation for survival
Vary by species
Goes both ways (parent provides care, young provides nurturing behavior)

Play

Generally similar to a functional behavior (behavior needed to survive) such as fighting

Benefits of play

Improve social skills (courtship, appeasement and competitive behaviors)
Prepare for coping with unusual circumstances (balance)

Acoustic signals

Vary in duration, pitch and amplitude

Scent communication

Using chemical signals to communicate
Lasts long after signaler leaves area

Vomeronasal organ

Used to detect pheromones
Located between nose and mouth
Flehmen Response

Visual signs

Physiological traits (can't adjust this)
Body movements (more flexible, can covey different messages)

Tactile Signals

Social grooming
Suckling, nuzzling
Social play
Head butting
Biting

Reproductive behaviors

Behavior related to producing offspring

Choosing a mate depends on

Time, energy and resources
Higher cost to animal results in higher selectivity in choosing a mate

Monogamous animals

1 male, 1 female
Ex \= swans