Independence Movements - India

1. What were the religions and cultures in India before the 19th century?

1526, Mughals invaded and brought Islam to the South Asia.  Under Mughal control, cultures and religions were not suppressed. the leaders were Muslims, and local leaders and the majority of the population were Hindu.  The Mughal regime was based on the taxation of the Indian peasantry. 

By the 19^th century, Mughal power was in decline and challenged by the British East India company.  The last remnants of Mughal influence was removed after the Indian Rebellion(Sepoy Mutiny) against the British in 1857. 

2. Why did nationalism develop in India in the 19th Century?

1857 Sepoy Mutiny developed because both Hindu and Muslims felt disrespected by the British East India Company. Britain crushed the rebellion and established the 1858 India Government Act with Queen Victoria. Indian nationalism then developed under British Rule.

Economic

• Britain de-industrialized India, stopping their cloth export by forcing them to grow cotton for British Manufacturers, which was then sold back to India

• Indian taxes were sent to British interests (China, East Africa, Middle East)

Political/Social

• Indian civil service was largely Indian, however the govt. officials were British and authoritarian thus there wasn’t much indian representation.

• British racism and enforcement of Caste system created ‘divide and rule’ policy (social and economic inequality)

• 1885 INC divided educated Indians from rural India

• Partition of Bengal 1905 caused Hindu and Muslim divide, Indian nationalism against Britain

• Morely Minto Reforms guaranteed Muslim electorate and moved capital to Delhi, causing Muslim support.

3. Wars as a cause and/or catalyst for independence movements: What was the impact of the First World war?

• Many Indians served in WWI, so the INC became interested in self-governance by 1915.

• India was heavily taxed and contributed to war effort. Indian food grain price increased, causing a famine in India.

• 1916 Lucknow Pact United Hindus and Muslims in the INC. later in 1916, the united congress urged British to consider India’s independence

2. What were the aims of the Home Rule Leagues?

• 1916, Home Rule leagues were established to encourage self-rule. Annie Besant(British) and Bal Tilak(Hindu) created Home Rule Leagues that were inspired by Ireland.

• They advocated for government reform and control of Indian Financials, however British could retain control of Foreign Affairs and Defence

3. What was the response of the British to growing demands for home rule?

Britain deemed Home Rule as radical and arrested Tilak and Bessant. This cause the INC to increase support for Home Rule.

Edwin Montagu wrote the Montagu Declaration(Aka govt. of india act) in 1919 to quell Indian Nationalism

• It stated there would be increased Indian Representation in Govt, and that self government would come “eventually”

Britain passed legislation to limit Indian uprising

• 1915 Defence of India Act: censorship of anti-british newspaper/media. This was renewed by 1919.

• 1919 Rowlatt Act: allowed arrest without trial, and trials without jury.

• The Rowlatt Act led to the Armitsar Massacre in 1919

4. What was the significance of the Government of India Act 1919?

The montagu declaration overhauled Indias government creating dyarchy, meaning a division of power between India and Britain(the division was unequal)

• Reserved seats for different economic/religious/social groups

• 70% of provincial council was elected

• British viceroy still controlled everything

Overall, the act disappointed the Home Rule league and caused further Indian nationalism.

1. Methods of achieving independence (including violent and non-violent methods)

Non-violent (Satyagraha)

• Speeches (from Gandhi and INC), mass petitions

• Mass communication: slogans (“quit india”, “do or die”), newspapers, international press reports

• Prayer - Gandhi held daily prayer

• Fasting - Gandhi and followers went on hunger strikes

• Salt march as a method of protest for amritsar massacre (civil disobedience via illegal salt production)

• Boycotts: refusing taxes, boycotting british goods, british schools, and british government

• Khadi: homespun economy, India began making textiles again and boycotted British textiles

Violent

• some revolutionaries advocated for armed disobedience such as Jugantar which carried out assassinations of british officers in Bengal(1918) after the Bengal Partition.

• Religious extremists such as Hindu extremists also advocated for violence, against British and secular political figures (Gandhi)

2. Role and importance of leaders of independence movements (GANDHI)

• Worked in South Africa and experienced racial discrimination. Also witnessed first-hand use of violent methods met with brutal violent retaliation by the British.

• Rejected western culture – dressed as Indian peasant

• Changed Congress from party of the elites to a mass movement to include all classes in society.

• Campaigned for rights of the untouchables – this promoted a modern style state for an independent India

• Convinced non-violence was the key method –  made it very difficult for colonial rulers to crush with force

• Champaran agitation campaign in 1918 – mass disobedience – peasant farmers of Bihar forced to grow indigo instead of food crops

• After Amritsar Massacre 1919 – launch of all India non-cooperation campaign – becomes national figure

• Arrested and sentenced to 6 years  - not politically active until 1929

• Effective propagandist - Salt March 1930

• Use of ‘fast’ / hunger strikes

• Led ‘Quit India’ campaign in WW2

• He did not accommodate Muslim fears of Hindu domination - he promoted single state. 

• He resigned in protest from Congress in 1934 when federated India with some Muslim autonomy considered

• His failure to compromise led to partition

• Assassinated in 1948 by Hindu extremist for being too secular

2. Role and importance of leaders of independence movements (Muhammad Ali Jinnah)

• Like Gandhi he was a trained lawyer

• Member of Indian National Congress from 1896

• Joined Muslim League 1913 and in 1916 became president

• Member of Home Rule League

• Initially moderate – but shifted after British did not give independence to India after First World War

• Jinnah resigned from Congress following launch of non-cooperation campaign - disagreed with Gandhi’s method as believed it destabilised political structure

• Promoted two state solution for India, whereas Congress promoted united independent India

• League became another force putting pressure on British

• From 1937 promoted League as only organization for Muslims

• Supported British during Second World War – strengthened position of League

• In 1941 – newspaper set up, Dawn, to promote League’s position

• Gandhi unable to bring Jinnah into agreement

• 16 August 1946 – Jinnah called for ‘direct action’:  strikes, protests and violence

• Congress and British accepted partition  and creation of Pakistan

1. What were the political, ethnic and racial challenges that faced Pakistan in the ten years after independence?

The 1947 partition caused catastrophe as many Muslims from south could not reach Pakistan, and Bengali Hindus could not reach India. The exodus resulted in violence, rape, and murder. There was a refugee crisis where both India and Pakistan spent 900,000+ ruppes on relief.

Pakistan

East and West Pakistan were separated, making it hard to transport resources. later in 1971 east Pakistan became Bangladesh.

Official langauge was declared Urdu which alienated bengali speaking muslims in east pakistan.

Conflict between Mahajirs and local Punjabi, Sikhs,

Jinnah died in 1948

First prime minister of Pakistan assassinated in 1951

90% of industry was in India after Partition

1. What were the political, ethnic and racial challenges that faced India in the ten years after independence?

India

The INC and Jawaharlal Nehru opposed further fragmentation of India despite the 200 different languages in regions. Constituient Assembly of 1946 integrated regions of different language. Potti Sriramalu protested this by fasting until his death in 1952. This caused riots, nehru relented

• 1953 States Reorganization Commission established 1956 States Reorganization Act to organize regions via language.

• Nehru made Hindi the national language, which caused a secessionist movement of those who spoke Dravidian in the south. nehru responded by making english another official language.

• Akali Dal - secessionist movement in 1955 advocated for Punjab to be a separate Sikh state

• Assam tribal region launched guerrilla warfare to secede in 1950s, however nehru ended up absorbing it into India.

3. What were the political challenges facing Nehru and how effective were his policies?

Nehru was a socialist who supported the INC, after partition the socialist party declared the INC authoritarian. nehru lost socialist allies.

1948-1951, Nehru’s control over congress diminished as Patel promoted Hindu congress rather than secular (like Gandhi wanted). Patel allowed radical RSS members into congress, and Nehru was unable to prevent passing of pro-hindu laws.

1959, india became a republic with Prasad being move into presidency by patel.

4: What were the economic challenges facing India and how effective were Nehru’s policies?

Inspired by the USSR, Nehru promoted a socialist approach for India's economy post-independence. The Congress agreed on Fundamental Rights in 1931, including nationalizing key industries. Nehru, a leader in the Congress Socialist Party, encouraged communists to join and bolster the party's left wing. In 1938, Bose, then Congress president, appointed Nehru chairman of the National Planning Committee to develop the economy through government-led industrialization. After WWII, a planning advisory board was set up in 1946.

1952: Indias 5 year plan aimed to control inflation, land reform, and increase food production.

1956: second five year plan aimed to industrialize india.

Massive investing in industry led to cuts in agriculture. Food prod. fell when monsoon rain of 1957 failed to arrive. Nehru had to import food using foreign loans from the US.

6. Challenge for India and Pakistan: Why did Kashmir become a focus of tension between India and Pakistan?

Kashmir became a focal point of tension between India and Pakistan due to its strategic location and religious demographics. After the partition in 1947, the princely state of Kashmir was predominantly Muslim but ruled by a Hindu Maharaja. Kashmir wanted to remain independent, but pakistani soldiers marched the capital. Kashmir ceded to india for help with the troops in 1947.

Nehru asked UN for a resolution, where they declared Pakistan must remove troops. Pakistan ignored the resolution. In 1949 a ceasefire was agreed on, and in 1957 Kashmir formally joined India.