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Scottish philosopher and economist (1723-1790). The he wrote on nearly every subject of moral and social philosophy, he is basically remembered as the other of An Inquiry into the nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) and as the creator of the metaphor of the "invisible hand." This work more-or-less single-handedly founded the Classical school of economics

Adam Smith

American economist (1912-). Conservative thinker famous for his advocacy of monetarism (a revision of the quanitity theory of money) in works like A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960 (1963). He is strongly associated with the ideals of laissez-faire government policy.

Milton Friedman

German economist, historian, and social philosopher (1818-1883). His principal contribution to economic thought was extending the labor theory of value to its logical conclusion, his theory of surplus value. This theory, along with his defense of economic materialism, appeared in Das Kapital.

Karl Marx

English economist (1883-1946). He is most famous for The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936), which judged most of classical economic analysis to be a special case (hence "General Theory") and argued that the best way to deal with prolonged recessions was deficit spending.

John Maynard Keynes

English economist (1772-1823). He is best known for Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, which introduced more-or-less modern notions of comparative advantage and its theoretical justification for unfettered international trade. He also put forth the so-called 'iron law of wages'.

David Ricardo

Canadian economist (1908-). Known for his liberal popular writings like The Affluent Society and The New Industrial State (with their emphasis on public service and the limitations of the marketplace).

John Kenneth Galbraith

French economist (1694-1774). Undisputed leader of the Physiocrats, the first systematic school of economic thought. Among its tenets were the economic and moral righteousness of laissez-faire policies and the notion that land was the ultimate source of all wealth

Francois Quesnay

English economist (1842-1924). His Magnum opus, 1890's Principles of Economics, introduced the notions of consumer surplus, quasi-rent, demand curves, and elasticity, all fundamental concepts in introductory macro- and microeconomics

Alfred Marshall

American economist (of Norwegian heritage) (1857-1929). Primarily remembered for his The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899), that indroduced phrases like "conspicuous consumption." He is remembered for likening the ostentation of the rich to the Darwinian proofs-of-virility found in the animal kingdom

Thorstein Veblen

British economist and social philosopher (1806-1873). Mainly known today for his work extending the ideas of Ricardo in Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy (1844), for example, the relationship between profits and wages. Also known for exhaustively examining the necessity of private property in his Principles of Political Economy (1848)

John Stuart Mill

House of Bourbon (1638-1715, r. 1643-1715). His reign is often cited as the best historical example of an absolute monarchy. Louis led France against most of the rest of Europe to win the throne of Spain for his grandson (the War of Spanish Succession). He championed classical art, religious orthodoxy, and instituted a great program of building throughout France. Know as the "Sun King," his 72-year reign is the second longest in recorded history.

Louis XIV

House of Bourbon (1601-1643, r. 1610-1643). Sometimes working with his chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, and sometimes against, Louis XII turned France into the pre-eminent European power during his reign. This was largely achieved via French victories in the Thirty Years' War. The Three Musketeers is set in the early years of his reign.

Louis XIII

House of Valois (1494-1547, r. 1515-1547). His early military victories (like the Battle of Marignano), his lavish court, and his support of luminaries like Leonardo da Vinci augured a splendid reign. His rivalry with Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire spelled his doom, however. He was captured in battle in 1525 and held for a humiliating ransom. Wars continued after his release, but bankruptcy and religious strife laid France low.

Francis I

Founder of the house of Bourbon (1553-1610, r. 1589-1610). This king of Navarre became heir to the throne when Henry III's brother died in 1584. After fighting Catholic opposition in the War of the Three Henries, he renounced Protestantism and accepted Catholicism in order to enter Paris and become king. With the help of Maximilien Sully he erased the national debt and removed much religious strife with the Edict of Nantes (1598).

Henry IV

House of Capet (1165-1223, r. 1179-1223). He was the first of the great Capetian kings of France. Fighting and negotiating against Henry II, Richard I, and John of England, he won back Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, and other territories. He took part in the famous Third Crusade (with Richard I and Frederick Barbarossa) and made use of the Aligensian crusade to pave the way for the annexation of Languedoc by his successor.

Philip II

House of Valois (1470-1498, r. 1483-1498). His short reign is remarkable for the enormous cost in men and money of his Italian campaign but more so for the number of his successors that followed his catastrophic lead. He was motivated by a desire to govern Naples, which he had theoretically inherited. He died before he could surpass or absolve his disastrous first campaign with another.

Charles VIII

House of Capet (1214-1270, r. 1226-1270). He lead the Seventh Crusade that ended in military disaster, but after his ransoming he remained in the Holy Land to successfully negotiate for what he couldn't win. He returned to Europe with his reputation intact and negotiated a peace with England that saw Henry III become his vassal. He stabilized the French currency and is generally held to have reduced corruption in the kingdom. He died leading a crusade against Tunisia. He is the only canonized king of France.

Louis IX

House of Capet (1187-1226, r. 1223-1226). Though he reined for only three years, his contributions to the rise of French power were enormous. He annexed Languedoc and captured Poitou from England. Perhaps more importantly, he established the system of appanages (land grants) which replaced the older, local nobles with barons who owed their fiefs to the crown. This allowed for the subsequent rise in French royal power.

Louis VIII

House of Capet (1338-1380, r. 1364-1380). He had an inauspicious start (before his reign even began) with having to ransom his father, John II, from England for three million crowns and most of southwestern France. Later, with military advisor Bertrand du Guesclin, he recaptured almost all of that territory. He also concluded alliances with Portugal, Spain, and Flanders, reorganized the army, and restructured the collection of taxes while leading France's recovery from the devastation of the early period of the Hundred Years' War.

Charles V

House of Valois (1551-1589, r. 1574-1589). His reign was suffused with blood, at first because of the contintious Wars of Religion that pitted Catholics against Huguenots, but later because of the struggles that arose when it became clear that he was going to be the last of the Valois line. The War of the Three Henries broke out after his brother died and then-Protestant Henry of Navarre (later Henry IV) became heir, leading the Catholic Holy League to strike out of fear for its interests. He was assassinated by a crazed friar in 1589.

Henry III

(1940-) (Brazil-Forward) Also known as "the Black Pearl," he led the Brazilian national team to three World Cup victores in 1958, 1962, and 1970 (though he was injured for most of the '62 finals) and to permanent possession of the Jules Rimet Trophy. In his professional and international career, he played in 1,363 matches and scored 1,282 goals. He made his professional debut with Brazil's Santos in 1956 and played with them until 1974. In 1975, he came out of retirement to promote the game in the United States; He later became Brazil's Minister of Sport, and in 1999, the National Olympic Committees named him the IOC's Athelete of the Century, despite his never having partaken in an Olympic Games

Pele (Edson Arantes do Nascimento)

(1945-) (West Germany-Sweeper) Nicknamed "Der Kaiser," hes the only man ever to win the World Cup as both team captain and manager

Franz Beckenbauer

(1972-) (United States-Forward) The youngest American ever to play for a US national team; UNC Chapel Hill alum, two world cups (1991 and 1999) and one gold winning Olympic team. Holds the all-time international scoring record.

Mia Hamm

(1915-2000) (England-Winger) Known as "Wizard of Dribble", closed his international carrer in 1956 being named the first-ever European Footballer of the Year. Never had red card his entire career. First english footballer to be knighted.

Sir Stanley Matthews

(1960-) (Argentina-Forward) Perpetrator of the imfamous "Hand of God" goal, in which he directed the ball into the net with his hand illegally, undetected by officials.

Diego Maradona

(1947-) (Netherlands-Midfielder) Helped usher in the system of "total football," in which all positions should be equally willing and adept to play all portions of the game. In 1974 he helped the "Orange" to their first appearance in the World Cup final, where they lost to Wester Germany in Munich

Johann Cryuff

(1955-) (France-Midfielder) Arguably France's greatest footballer, won three stright European Footballer of the Year Awards beginning in 1983

Michel Platini

(1976-) (Brazil-Forward) Twice World Footballer of the Year, in 1997 and 1998. He was on the Brazil squad that won World Cup 94 in the US. Won a tournament MVP award in 1998 World Cup, but his poor showing, blamed by the media on an all-night session of Playstations "Tomb Raider", keep Brazil from its fifth title

Ronaldo (Ronaldo Luiz Nazario da Lima)

(1975-) (England-Midfielder) Known as much for his talent as his marriage to Victoria Adams, better known as "Posh Spice." Made an obscene gesture to English fans at the opening game of Euro 2000

David Beckham

(1972-) (France) The 1998 World and European Footballer of the Year is an all-around player in France's midfield. Critical player in the World Cup '98. Known the world over as Zizou

Zinedine Zidane

After the Battle of Lexington, he joined Ethan Allen in the attack on Fort Ticonderoga. Appointed by Washington to capture Quebec, he was severely wounded. Arming a flotilla on lake Champlain, he attacked the British fources at Valcour Island, earning accolades. Sent to command Philadelphia, he lived extravagantly among Loyalists. After marrying Peggy Shippen, he made overtures to the British, alerting them to a plan to invade Canada, and planning to betray is expected command of West Point. Later, as part of the British army, he raided New London, Connecticut, and led several raids on Virginia

Benedict Arnold

"Gentleman Johnny," as he was known (he was also a playwright), he began is Revolutionary War career under Gage, returning to England after ineffectiveness in 1774-5. Captured Fort Ticonderoga, but met resistance when he sent his Hessians to attack Bennington. His troops met trouble at Saratoga, beign repulsed at Freedman's Farm, and being forced to surrender after Bemis Heights. He returned to England, and was later appointed commander-in-chief of Ireland

John Burgoyne

An aristocrat and ensign, he fought in the battle of Minden and by the end of the Seven Years War, he was a captain. Promoted to Major General before being sent to America. Failed assault on Charleston; served under Henry Clinton in the battle of Long Island, but made his mark in fighting at Manhattan and Pursued Washington across the Hudson. He was outmaneuvered by washington at Princeton. He directed the main attack on Brandywine Creek as part of the plan to capture Philadelphia. Led the battle of Monmouth. Bested Horatio Gates at Camden (N.C.) and Nathaniel Greene at Guilford Courthouse, the latter a pyrrhic victory which likely led to his defeat in attempts to contain Lafayette in Virginia. He occupied Yorktown in August 1781, where he was surrounded and forced to surrender. Later appointed governor-general of India.

Charles Cornwallis, First Marquess of Cornwallis

Wounded in F&I War attack on Fort Duquesne, it was there he met George Washington. Under Washington, organized the Boston army into an effective force and was promote to major general in 1776. Directed the defense of New York against Burgoyne's invasion attempt, leading to victory at Saratoga. Became involved in the Conway cabal, an attempt to replace Washington. Lost the battle of Camden to Cornwallis and was replaced by Nathaniel Greene.

Horatio Gates

Irish-born, he led grenadiers across the Plains of Abraham in the 1759 siege of Quebec under General Wolfe. He entered the war as 2nd in command to Thomas Gage before taking command after Gages recall. He repulsed efforts by Montgomery and Benedict Arnold to capture Montreal and Quebec, routing a second attempt by Arnold by defeated an American naval buildup on Lake Champlain. Sat out all but the end of the war, returning in 1782 as commander-in-chief after Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown

Sir Guy Carleton

A Prominent Rhode Island politician; partially lame. Led forces to victory in the Battle of Trenton, and protected Washington in the Battle of Brandywine. Led the main force at Germantown. Led troops in the Battle of Monmouth. Replaced Benedict Arnold, and sent south following Gates loss at Camden. Retreated from Cornwallis until a crippling counterattack at Guilford Courthouse

Nathaniel Greene

A veteran of the siege of Louisbourg and the leader of the ascent to the Plains of Abraham (Quebec, 1759), he was dispatched in 1775 as second in command to Gage. Directed the attack on Bunker Hill and succeeded Gage as commander. After his attempts to secure peace in 1777 failed, he led the attack on Philadelphia, defeating Washington at Brandywine. Relinquished command to Sir Henry Clinton.

Sir William Howe

Polish-born and trained, he assisted the Americans, helping to fortify the Delaware River in 1776. Planned the building of Ft. Mercer and built fortifications which helped win the battle of Saratoga. Distinguished himself in the Race to the Dan River under Greene, but mishandled the siege of Ninety-Six. Back in Poland he resisted the partition, and attempted to liberate the nation afterward

Tadeusz Andrezj Bonawnetura Kosciusko

Approached by US Minister to France, he first saw action at Brandywine. He supported Washington during the winter at Valley Forge. Served on the board that sentenced Major Andre to death. Participated in the battles of Barren Hill, Monmouth, and Newport. Pursuing Cornwallis to Yorktown, Lafayette helped the siege there until Cornwallis' surrender

Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette

Previously an Indian fighter, he was given command of Fort Sullivan in 1776. He fought as Savannah and escaped when British captured Charleston. Cornwallis appointed Colonel Tarleton to eliminate him, and he was frusterated, leading to this man's nickname of "Swamp Fox". Fought the British at Eutaw Springs

Francis Marion

A Scotsman who had fled Britain after two deaths at his hands. Commissioned to outfith the Alfred, which he used to capture New Providence in the Bahamas. Led the Alfred against the HMS Glasgow, leading to his promotion and command of the Providence. Sank tons of British ships along the Atlantic coast. Commissioned captain of the Ranger, he sailed to France to acquire new ships, and he captured the HMS Drake. Fought the British in his ship Serapis

John Paul Jones

Formerly a part of Frederick the Great's staff, this Prussian was recommended by Ben Franklin to Washington. He joined Washington at Valley Forge and aided in the Battle of Monmouth. Spent two years writing Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States. Sent to Virginia in 1780 to oppose Benedict Arnold and aided in the siege of Yorktown

Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben

Selected by the Continental Congress to serve as general-in-chief, his first action was to blockage Boston by capturing Dorchester Heights, forcing the withdrawal of Howe. Failed to defend New York, he retreated to Trenton. Following victory at Princeton, retired to Morristown. Sent his best forces north to deal with Burgoyne's attack in spring 1777 and kept Howe engaged in the mid-Atlantic. Autumn setbacks in Brandywine and Germantown led to a demoralized winter camp at Valley forge, countered by the work of Lafayette and Steuben. After a costly draw with Sir Henry Clinton's forces at Monmouth, he sent Greene south to replace Gates and worked with French general Rochambeau to plan the Yorktown campaign, the success of which led to Cornwallis' surrender on October 19, 1781.

George Washington

(1961-) From Ontario, "The Great One" was named Canada's athlete of the century. Holds 61 NHL records, including career goals, assists, and points. His #99 was retired league-wide. Won 4 Stanley Cups with Edmonton, before being traded to LA, finished up his career with the New York Rangers

Wayne Gretzky

(1926-) From Saskatchewan, "Mr. Hockey" was known for fighting. Played 26 seasons with the Detroit Red Wings, retiring in 1971. Played his last NHL season at 52 in 1980 with the Hartfor Whalers. Was NHL career points leader until 1989.

Gordie Howe

(1965-) From Montreal, Quebec. Scored his first NHL goal on the first shift of his first game. Led the Pittsburgh Penguins to consecutive Stanley Cup victories in 91-92. After a bout with Hodgkin's disease, he returned to lead the NHL in scoring in 95-96 and 96-97. He became lead owner of the Penguins in 1999. "Super _____"

Mario Lemieux

(1948-) Born in Ontario, he revolutionized defense. Won Art Ross Trophy, Norris, Hart, Conn Smythe trophies in the same season. He led the Bruins to their first Stanley Cup victory in three decades with the now-famous "Goal". His bad knees forced him into early retirement in 1979.

Bobby Orr

(1921-2000) Born in Montreal, Quebec, "The Rocket" was the first NHL player to score 50 goals in one season, in 44-45. Also the first player to score 500 in a career. Winner of eight Stanley Cups. His suspension by league President Clarence Campbell led to an eponymous riot which many sociologists credit with starting Quebec's independence movement.

Maurice Richard

(1929-1970) Born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, "Ukey" played more games, won more games, and recorded more shutouts than any other goalie in NHL history. Deeply psychologically troubled, he died in 1970 while a member of the NY Rangers

Terry Sawchuk

(1947-) Born in Hamilton, Ontario, he had a standout career at Cornell University before joining the Montreal Canadiens. In 1970, he won the Conn Smythe (playoff MVP) and the Calder (Rookie of the Year) honors. Canada's goalie during the legendary 1972 Summit Series with the USSR. Obtained his law degree from McGill. Currently president of Toronto Maple Leafs.

Ken Dryden

(1952-) Born in Moscow, USSR. First Russian in Hockey Hall of Fame. Came to prominence in North American during 1972 Summit Series against Canada; a ten time World Champion, he also won three gold medals. Decision to pull him during the 1980 US/USSR Olympic game considered why US went on to win gold. Currently serves as goaltending coach for the Chicago Blackhawks

Vladislav Tretiak

(1939-) Born in Point Anne, Ontario; "The Golden Jet" was the star of the Chicago Blackhawks of the 60s, winning three Art Ross trophies. Defected to WHA's Winnipeg Jets in 1972 for a 10 year deal, where he would help make Winnipeg one of the four WHA teams to merge with the NHL in 78-79. Father of Brett, and the duo is the only father-son combo to score 500 each in NHL history.

Bobby Hull

(1902-1985) Born in Saskatchewan, "The Edmonton Express" is the epitome of "Old-Time Hockey." As a blue liner for the Boston Bruins, named a first team NHL all-star for 8/9 years during the 1930s and is the only defenseman to win 4 Hart trophies as NHL MVP. Went on to be owner/GM of the AHL's Springfield Indians, stingy.

Eddie Shore

(978-1015) Novelist, diarist, and courtesan. She was the author of the Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari), the first known novel; her diary; and a collection of tanka poems. She was the daughter of a court official (Fujiwara Tametoki), and received literature lessons, untraditional for women of the Heian period (784-1185).

Murasaki Shikibu

(1644-1694) (pseudonym of ____ Munefusa) General acknowledged as the master of the haiku form, the most notable influences on his work were Zen Buddhist ones. Noted for works like The Narrow Road to the Deep North (Oku no hosomichi) which includes descriptions of local sights in both prose and haiku. He took his pseudonym from the name of the simple hut where he retired, which means "Cottage of the Plantain Tree."

Matsuo Basho

(1899-1972) Recipient of the 1968 Nobel Prize for Literature, he was the first Japanese author to be so honored. His works combine Japanese values with modern trends and often center on sex. Works are often only a few pages long, a form given the name "palm of the hand". He is best known for three novels: Thousand Cranes, based on the tea ceremony and inspired by The Tale of Genji; The Sound of the Mountain, about the relationship of an old man and his daughter-in-law; and Snow Country, about an aging geisha. Friends with Mishima Yukio, he was associated with right-wing causes and openly protested the Cultural Revolution in China. He committed suicide two years after Mishima.

Kawabata Yasunari

(1925-1970) (pseudonym of Hiraoka Kimitake) He was a novelist whose central theme was the disparity between traditional Japanese values and the spiritual emptiness of modern life. First novel, Confessions of a Mask (Kamen no kokukaku), was successful. His four-volume epic, The Sea of Fertility (Hojo no umi, consisting of Spring Snow, Runaway Horses, The Temple of Dawn, and The Decay of the Angel), is about self-destructive personalities and the transformation of Japan into a modern, sterile society. Organized a right-wing society stressing physical fitness and martial arts, and committed ritual suicide after a public speech failed to galvanize the armed forces into overthrowing the government

Mishima Yukio

The Egyptian creation myth begins with the emergence of ___, the sun god, from the ocean in the form of an ___. He brought forth four children: Geb, Shu, Nut, and Tefnut. ___ and ___ became air and moisture. From ___, the god of the earth, and ---, goddess of the sky, were spawned four other gods: Osiris, Isis, Set (or Seth), and Nepthys. These nine gods were known as the ennead, who were worshipped at the Heliopolis. Two notable alternatives where the ennead of Memphis led by the god ---, and the ennead of Thebes, led by ---.

Ra, egg, Shu, Nut, Geb, Nut, Ptah, Amon

"Family quarrel," ___ took ___, his sister, for his wife, and ruled earth. ___ grew jealous and killed him, cutting his body into ___ pieces and hiding them around Egypt. Isis searched the land until she found the pieces, and with the help of ___, embalmed the body. She conceived a son, ___, by the dead Osiris and then resurrected him. The son regained the kingship.

Osiris, Isis, Set, Anubis, Horace

The Egyptians believed that the soul had three components. The ___ remained near or within the body (why mummifications were required). The ___ went to the underworld, merging with aspects of Osiris, but was allowed periodically to return (why tombs have narrow doors). The ___ could temporarily assume different physical forms and wander the world as a ghost. The heart of the deceased was weighed against Ma'at, commonly represented as an ___ ___.

Ka, Ba, Akh, ostrich feather

During the reign of Amenhotep III (1390-1353 BC), worship of the god ___ was resurrected. His successor Amenhotep IV declared him to be the only god, creating one of the earliest known monotheistic religions. It did not survive him, as his successor, Tutankhamen restored the traditional practices

Aton

Husband of Isis, father of Horus, brother of Set. Served as god of the underworld and judge of the dead. God of vegetation and renewal; represented as either a green mummy, or wearing the Atef, a plumed crown

Osiris

He fought the demon Apopis each day, emerging victorious, symbolizing struggles that bring harmony. Later, he became the personification of violence and disorder, the cause of all disasters. Having killed his brother Osiris, he battled Osiris' son Horace, being emasculated in the fight.

Set

Daughter of Geb and Nut, protected love, motherhood, and fate. Roles similar to Hathor, Demeter. Her powers were gained by tricking the god Ra; by placing a snake in his path, which poisoned him, she forced him to give her power before she would cure him

Isis

The god of the sky and light and the son of Isis and Osiris. Isis impregnated herself with the dead Osiris, and he was hidden by his mother. When he was grown, he avenged his father's death, driving away Set but losing his eye (which he regained thanks to the god Thoth); thus, he came to rule over the earth; known to have two faces, that of the falcon and that of a child.

Horus

Personification of the midday sun, he was also venerated as Atum (setting sun) and Khepri (rising sun). He traveled across the sky each day and then each night, the monster Apep would attempt to prevent his return. Portrayed with the head of a falcon, and crowned with the sun disk.

Ra

Began as a local god of Thebes; his wife was Mut, and his son Khon. Later, he became linked with Ra, and the two combined as ___-Ra. In this form, he became worshipped beyond Egypt and identified with Zeus and Jupiter. He appears in art as a man in a loincloth with a headdress topped by feathers, but sometimes has the head of a ram. The temple of ___-Ra at Karnak was the largest ever built.

Amon

Serving the gods as the supreme scribe, this ibis-headed god known as the tongue of Ptah for his knowledge of hieroglyphics and as the Heart of Ra for his creative powers. Creator of the calendar, he was symbolized by the moon. His magical knowledge led to his association with the Greek Hermes. He was consulted by Isis when attempting to reconstruct Osiris, and was again consulted when the young Horus was stung by a scorpion.

Thoth

Principal god of Memphis, he was portrayed as a mummy, or wearing the beard of the gods on his chin. Patron of craftsmen, he was also a healer, in the form of a dwarf. In the death trilogy (Anubis, Osiris, ____), he was seen as the god of embalming. His wife was the cat-headed Sekhmet and his son the lotus god Nefertem.

Ptah

Son of Osiris and Nepthys, typically pictured with the head of a jackal. Served as god of the desert and watcher of the tombs. Introduced the dead to the afterlife, weighed the heart of the dead against the feather of truth (Ma'at).

Anubis

The daughter of Ra, she predated the universe and ensured balance during its creation. Keeper of order, responsible for seasons, day and night, star motion. Symbolized by an ostrich feather against which hearts were weighed.

Ma'at

Patron of women, daughter of Ra and wife of Horus. Fulfilled many functions as goddess of the sky, of fertility, marriage, love, and beauty. Equated with aphrodite. Has the head of a cow.

Hathor

"Lady of the castle," she sided against her own husband, Set, in his battle against Osiris, but when set was destroyed, she collected bits of his body and brought him back to life, much as Isis had done for Osiris.

Nephthys

(Pluto) Named for the mythical boatman of the Greek underworld. It's pronunciation is in honor of Charlene Christy, wife of Jim Christy, its discoverer. The largest moon relative to the size of its orbiting planet. Pluto and ___ show the same face toward each other at all times.

Charon

(Mars) Named for two sons of Ares and Aprhodite, Greek for "fear" and "panic", they are the two moons of Mars and both were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall. "Panic" is the smallest moon in the solar system and was likely an asteroid brought into Mars' orbit after being disturbed by Jupiter. Both believed to have water

Deimos and Phobos

(Jupiter) One of the Galilean moons, discovered in 1610 by Galileo (the others are Callisto, Ganymede, and Io). It resembles Io, and to a degree, Earth, in its composition of silicate rocks. It is coated with a thin layer of ice, and has dark streaks across its surface

Europa

(Jupiter) The largest satellite in the solar system, this Galilean moon is larger than Mercury, but has only half its mass. Thought to have a three-layer structure of a molten iron core, silicate mantle, and ice exterior.

Ganymede

(Jupiter) Like Europa, this moon (named for a lover of Zeus) is primarily formed of silicate rock. Its surface is unlike any other satellite; rather than craters, it has volcanos, calderas, and other signs of geological activity.

Io

(Neptune) Discovered by Gerard Kuiper (who also discovered Miranda, Titan's atmosphere, and an asteroid belt), this moon (named for the daughters of Nereus and Doris) has the most eccentric orbit of any known satellite, the oddity of which indicates it is a captured asteroid.

Nereid

(Uranus) Named for the King of the Fairies in A Midsummer Night's Dream (all of Uranus' satellites are named for literary, rather than mythological, characters), it is the second largest of Uranus' satellites. Structure about half water, half rock.

Oberon

(Saturn) The largest of Saturn's satellites, this moon might be the largest satellite in the solar system (very close to Ganymede). It is the only satellite to have substantial atmosphere, 80% N, 20% CH4, trace Ar.

Titan

(Uranus) Another of Herschel's discoveries, the moon is named for Oberon's wife, the Queen of the Fairies, and is the largest of the Uranian satellites.

Titania

(Neptune) By far the largest of Neptune's satellites, it is unusual for its retrograde orbit. Has ice volcanos!

Triton

Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson narrowly beat incumbent Federalist John Adams 73-65, marking the ascent of that party's power. Since one electoral vote each is cast for president and vice president, Democratic-Republican VP candidate Aaron Burr also had 73 votes but refused to step aside. In the House, neither man won the necessary 9 state delegations outright until the 36th ballot, when James Bayard of Delaware changed his vote to Jefferson. This debacle leads to the passage of the 12th amendment. The Federalists never recovered; Hamilton's opposition to Adams led to a permanent split between the two, and Hamilton's opposition to Burr was one cause of their 1804 duel, in which Burr (then vice president) killed Hamilton.

Election of 1800

The candidates were John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson, all D-Rs. After John C. Calhoun decided to seek the vice presidency and Crawford (from Georgia) had a stroke, Jackson took most of the South and won the popular vote. Jackson had 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37, but since none had more than 50% of the vote, the House decided the election. Adams won in the House with support from Clay, and Jacksonians cried foul when Clay was made Secretary of State (the so-called "corrupt bargain"), giving fuel to Jackson's later campaign. Jackson is the only candidate to lose a presidential race despite having the most electoral votes, and he is one of four (with Tilden, Cleveland, and Gore) to lose despite winning the popular vote. The election also led to the founding of the Democratic Party

Election of 1824

Another four-candidate election, with Republican Abraham Lincoln, (norther) Democrat Stephen Douglas, (souther) Democrat John C. Breckinridge, and Constitutional Unionist John G. Bell. The Republican Part, founded in 1854, won in its second election (its first candidate being Fremont in 1856), aided by the fragmenting of the Democrats. Bell took Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia, Breckinridge swept the other slave states, and Lincoln nearly swept the free states. Though winning under 40% of the total popular vote, Lincoln dominated the electoral count with 180 to a combined 123 for his opponents (Breckinridge 72, Bell 39, Douglas 12). Seven southern states seceded before Lincoln even took office, and war soon followed.

Election of 1860

Republican Rutherford B. Hayes faced democrat Samuel Tilden, best known for battling Tammany Hall and the Tweed Ring in NY. Tilden won the popular vote and seemed to win the election, but results in Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana were contested, as was one vote in Oregon; if Hayes swept these votes, he would win the electoral count 185 to 184. In Congress, an informal bargain was reached (often called the Compromise of ___) in which Hayes won the election in exchange for Reconstruction being brought to an end.

Election of 1876

In the election itself, republican William McKinley swept the North and Northeast to beat Democrat William Jennings Bryan, but the campaign was the interesting part. The most prominent issue, the gold standard versus free silver coinage, led to Bryan's famous "Cross of Gold" speech. Shunned by Eastern press, Bryan, a legendary orator, traveled 18,000 miles through 27 states and was heard by some 3 million people. McKinley would not accept Bryan's challenge to debate, comparing it to putting up a trapeze and competing with a professional athlete. McKinley instead had a "front porch" campaign, as railroads brought voters by the thousands to hear him speak in his hometown of Canton, Ohio. Mark Hanna, McKinley's campaign manager, is often considered the first modern campaign manager. The election represented the demise of the Populist Party and ushered in a 16-year period of Republican rule. The gold question would soon disappear, with gold strikes in Australia and Alaska.

Election of 1896

Three presidents--Teddy Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson--earned electoral votes. Roosevelt, displeased with his successor Taft, returned to lead the progressive Republican faction; after Taft got the Republican nomination, Roosevelt was nominated by the Progressive Party (nicknamed the Bull Moose party). Wilson won with 435 electoral votes to Roosevelt's 88 and Taft's 8, making taft the only incumbent to finish third in a re-election bid. Though WIlson did set forth his New Freedom program, his dominating win must be credited largely to the splitting of the Republican vote by Roosevelt and Taft

Election of 1912

In the most recent election with four significant candidates, Democrat Harry Truman beat Republican Thomas Dewey, contrary to the famous headline of the Chicago Tribune, printed before the results from the West came in. Dewey dominated the Northeast, but Truman nearly swept the West to pull out the victory. Former vice president Henry Wallace earned over a million votes as the Progressive candidate, and Strom Thurmond took over a million votes and 39 electoral votes as the States' Rights (or "Dixiecrat") candidate.

Election of 1948

John F Kennedy defeated VP Richard Nixon 303-219 in a tight election, winning the popular vote by just two-tenths of a percent. The first Kennedy-Nixon debate is a classic in political science; calm, handsome Kennedy and the tired, uncomfortable Nixon. (Theodore White's notable The Making of the President series began with this election). Voting irregularities in Texas and Illinois (especially in Richard Daley's Chicago) led to allegations of fraud but a recount would not have been feasible, and Nixon did not press the issue. Nixon would go on to lost the California gubernatorial race, occasioning his famous statement, "You won't have Dick Nixon to kick around anymore".

Election of 1960

After Lyndon Johnson declined to run for re-election, and after Robert F. Kennedy was killed in California, the Democratic nomination went to Hubert Humphrey. Richard Nixon, gradually returning from political obscurity over the past six years, gained the Republican nomination. Alabama governor George Wallace ran as the American Independent candidate, becoming the last third-party candidate to win multiple electoral votes. Nixon edged Humphrey by half a million popular votes and a 301-191 electoral count, while Wallace won nearly ten million votes. Wallace's presence may have tipped the election to the Republicans, who, after being out of power for 28 of the last 36 years, would hold the presidency for all but four years through 1992.

Election of 1968

The closest election in American history, it is sure to be a long-term staple of history questions. Al Gore won the popular vote but lost the electoral vote by a final count of 271-266 (one Gore elector abstained). Ralph Nader of the Green Party won an important 2.7% of the vote, while Pat Buchanan of the Reform Party placed fourth. New Mexico and Oregon were initially too close to call but went to Gore, and Florida became the center of attention. Ballot confusion in Palm Beach County, intimidation of vote recanters in Miami-Dade County, and absentee ballots throughout Florida became significant issues, as Americans had to hear about butterfly ballots, hanging chads, and Florida Secretary of State Katharine Harris for the next five weeks. Gore officially conceded the election on December 13.

Election of 2000

(Pablo Picasso) Basque town bombed by the Germans during the Spanish Civil War in April 1937. Picasso had already been commissioned to paint a mural for the Spanish Pavilion at the World's Fair, and he completed his massive, black, white, and grey anti-war mural by early June 1937. It was in MOMA until 1981, when it was returned to Museo Nacional Central de Arte Reina Sofia in Spain

Guernica

(Marcel Duchamp) First painted in 1912, this painting created a sensation when shown at the 1913 Armory show in NY, where one critic referred to it as "an explosion in a shingle factory." Painted in various shades of brown, it portrays a nude woman in a series of broken planes, capturing motion down. Its portrait of motion echoes the work of the Futurists.

Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

(Salvador Dali) First shown in 1931, this is probably the most famous of the surrealist paintings. The landscape echoes Port Lligat, Dali's home. The ants, flies, clocks, and the Port Lligat landscape are motifs in many other Dali paintings, and the tromp l'oeil depiction of figures is typical. It currently belongs to MOMA; its 1951 companion piece, The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory, hangs at the Salvador Dali Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida

The Persistence of Memory

(Pablo Picasso) This painting depicts five women in a brothel. However, the images of the women are partly broken into angular, disjointed facets. The degree of broken-ness was rather mild compared to later Cubism, but was revolutionary in 1907. The rather phallic fruit arrangement in the foreground reflects the influence of Cezanne's "flattening of the canvas." Currently at MOMA

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon

(Piet Mondrian) While Les Demoiselles d'Avignon and other Cubist paintings represent an extension of Paul Cezanne's division-of-space approach to the canvas, Mondrian's De Stijl works are still further abstraction, such as Composition in Red, Yellow, and Blue. The painting simultaneously echoes the bright lights of a marquee, resembles a pattern of streets as seen from above, and creates a feeling of vitality and vibrancy, not unlike the music itself. Currently at MOMA

(Andy Warhol) Pop art parodies a world in which celebrities, brand names, and media images have replaced the sacred; Warhol's series may be the best illustration of this. Like the object itself, the paintings were done by the mass-produceable form of serigraphy (silk screening).

Campbell's Soup Can

(Edward Hopper) As is often the case with his works, Hopper uses a realistic approach (including details as the fluorescent light of the diner, the coffee pots, and the Phillies cigar sign atop the diner) to convey a sense of loneliness and isolation, even going so far as to depict the corner store without a door connecting to the larger world. Hopper's wife Jo served as the model for the woman at the bar. At the Art Institute of Chicago.

Nighthawks

(Marc Chagall) Painted in 1911, this is among Chagall's earliest surviving paintings. It is a dreamlike scene which includes many motifs common to Chagall, notably the lamb and peasant life. In addition to the two giant faces--a green face on the right and a lamb's head on the left--other images include a milkmaid, a reaper, an upside-down peasant woman, a church, and a series of houses, some of them upside down. Housed at MOMA