AP Psych Fall Final

Structuralism

Focuses on breaking down mental processes into basic components.

Functionalism

Emphasizes the purpose of mental processes in adapting.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure of the relationship between variables.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable measured in response to the independent variable.

Random Sampling

Selecting participants randomly from a population.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to different groups.

Experimental Design

Methodology to test hypotheses through controlled experiments.

Neuron Parts

Includes dendrites, axon, and synapses for communication.

Nervous System Functions

Controls body functions through neural signals.

Brain Functions

Different regions responsible for specific cognitive tasks.

Weber's Law

Principle stating that noticeable difference is proportional.

Top-Down Processing

Interpreting sensory information using prior knowledge.

Bottom-Up Processing

Building perception from individual sensory input.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus intensity detectable by senses.

Difference Threshold

Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid recollection of significant events.

Plasticity

Brain's ability to adapt and reorganize.

Confirmation Bias

Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs.

Flynn Effect

Observed rise in IQ scores over time.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Our behavior comes from unconscious drives, steaming from our childhood.Unconscious- Key Word

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on our observable behaviors. Only cares about the behaviors that impair our living and attempts to change them.Observable- Key Word

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on how we think

Social-Cultural Perspective

Focuses on how your culture affects your behavior.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on positive growth and the attempt to seek self-actualization.Positive, Human- Key Words

Evolutionary Perspective

We behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors.

neuroticism

Focus on how the physical body and brain creates our emotions, memories, and sensory experiences.Body & Brain- Key Words

standard deviation

statistical measure indicating average distance of scores from the mean

correlation v causation

correlation indicates a relationship between two variables, while causation means one variable directly influences or causes a change in another; "Correlation does not imply causation"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

prototype

mental representation or the "best example" of a category, embodying its most typical features; to categorize objects and concepts, which are formed from experiences, expectations, and imagination.

category

group of objects, events, people, or experiences that are perceived as having something in common and are grouped together based on shared characteristics

algorithm

step-by-step, rule-based procedure designed to solve a problem or reach a specific outcome, guaranteeing a correct solution if followed accurately

heuristic

a mental shortcut or a "rule of thumb" that individuals use to simplify decision-making and problem-solving, often leading to quick but potentially inaccurate or biased judgments.

convergent thinking

problem-solving approach that involves using analytical reasoning and existing knowledge to systematically narrow down possibilities and arrive at a single, best solution or answer

divergent thinking

creative, problem-solving approach that involves generating multiple, often unconventional, ideas or solutions to a problem

explicit memory

conscious, intentional recollection of facts and events

implicit memory

type of long-term memory that stores and retrieves information without conscious awareness or effort

retroactive interference

newly learned information hinders the retrieval of previously learned information

proactive interference

occurs when old knowledge interferes with the learning of new information

fluid intelligence

ability to reason, solve problems, and think critically in new and unfamiliar situations

crystallized intelligence

accumulation of knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education over time

Standardization

process of making a test uniform, or setting it to a specific standard

gate control theory

suggests that pain perception is modulated by a "gate" in the spinal cord, influenced by both sensory input and descending signals from the brain, rather than a simple direct transmission of pain signals

rods

specialized photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are primarily responsible for vision in low-light conditions

cones

specialized types of photoreceptors that work best in bright light conditions

Young-Helmholtz Theory

our perception of color is based on three types of cone cells in the retina, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light (red, green, and blue), and that all colors can be produced by combining these three primary colors

opponent-process theory

emotions are experienced in pairs, with a primary emotional response followed by an opposing, or "opponent," reaction that counteracts the initial experience, often leading to a return to a neutral state

light waves

amplitude of light waves is associated with our experience of brightness or intensity of color, with larger amplitudes appearing brighter

sound waves

physical vibrations that, when perceived by the auditory system, lead to the subjective experience of sound, including aspects like pitch, loudness, and timbre

case study

a detailed, in-depth investigation of a single person, group, or event, using a variety of methods like interviews, observations, and psychological tests, to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject

experiment

researchers manipulate one or more variables (independent variables) to observe their effect on another variable (dependent variable) under controlled conditions to test a hypothesis or answer a research question

natural observation

observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without researcher intervention, aiming to understand real-world behaviors in a non-artificial setting

survey

data is collected by asking individuals questions, often through questionnaires, to gather information about their opinions, behaviors, or experiences

survey design

the strategic planning and execution of a survey, encompassing the creation of a structured questionnaire and the methods used to collect data from a sample of individuals, aiming to gain insights into human behavior, attitudes, and experiences

testing effect

cognitive phenomenon in psychology that describes the improvement in long-term memory that occurs when individuals retrieve information previously studied

chunking

information is organized into meaningful groups to improve short-term retention and recall, effectively bypassing the limitations of working memory

mnemonics

memory aid that helps people remember information by associating it with something easier to recall, such as rhymes, acronyms, or imagery

rest and digest

state of the body's parasympathetic nervous system, which promotes relaxation, energy conservation, and bodily functions like digestion

fight or flight

automatic physiological reaction an event that’s perceived as stressful

nature v nurture

nature = genetics; nurture = environment

4 ethical principles

1. informed consent
2. confidentiality
3. "do no harm"
4. debrief

parts and f(n) of neuron: Cell Body

Maintains the neuron's health, contains the nucleus, and integrates incoming signals

parts and f(n) of neuron: Dendrites

Receive signals from other neurons and transmit them toward the cell body

parts and f(n) of neuron: axon

Transmits signals away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

parts and f(n) of neuron: Myelin Sheath

A fatty layer that insulates the axon, speeding up signal transmission

parts and f(n) of neuron: Synapse

junction where 2 neurons communicate, allowing signals to be passed neurotransmitters

parts and functions of central nervous system: Brain

control center, responsible for receiving, processing, and responding to sensory information, as well as regulating thought, emotion, and memory

parts and functions of central nervous system: Spinal Cord

A major pathway for communication between the brain and the rest of the body, facilitating reflexes and transmitting signals.

parts and functions of peripheral nervous system: Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movements, receiving sensory information and relaying motor commands to muscles

parts and functions of peripheral nervous system: Autonomic Nervous System

component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes, including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal

parts and functions of peripheral nervous system: Autonomic Nervous System -- Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates the "fight-or-flight" response, preparing the body for stressful situation

parts and functions of peripheral nervous system: Autonomic Nervous System -- Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body down after a stressful situation, returning it to a state of homeostasis

parts and functions of brain: Cerebral Cortex and Lobes: Frontal Lobe

Involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language

parts and functions of brain: Cerebral Cortex and Lobes: Parietal Lobe

Processes touch, pressure, temperature, and pain

parts and functions of brain: Cerebral Cortex and Lobes: Temporal Lobe

Processes auditory information and language comprehension

parts and functions of brain: Cerebral Cortex and Lobes: Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information

parts and functions of brain: Limbic System: Amygdala

Plays a key role in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression

parts and functions of brain: Limbic System: Hippocampus

Crucial for forming new memories

parts and functions of brain: Brainstem: Medulla

Controls automatic functions like breathing and heart rate

parts and functions of brain: Brainstem: pons

Regulates functions like hearing, equilibrium, taste, and facial sensations

parts and functions of brain: Brainstem: Cerebellum

Involved in motor control, balance, and coordination

parts and functions of brain: Other Important Structures: Thalamus

Acts as a sensory relay station, processing and transmitting sensory information to the cortex

parts and functions of brain: Other Important Structures: Hypothalamus

Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and other basic functions

parts and functions of brain: Other Important Structures: Reticular Formation

network of neurons that regulates arousal and attention

parts and functions of brain: Other Important Structures: Basal Ganglia

Involved in motor control and movement

parts and functions of brain: Other Important Structures: Broca's Area

Responsible for producing language

parts and functions of brain: Other Important Structures: Wernicke's Area

Involved in understanding language

meth

dopamine and stimulant; similar effects to cocaine but instead of aggressiveness - irritability, both produce euphoria, highly addictive

alcohol

depressant, GABA, glutamate; increases inhibitory effects of GABA, blinds to glutamate receptors, preventing glutamate from binding to and exciting the cell; frontal lobe, disinhibition

cocaine

dopamine, stimulant; blocks dopamine transporters, excess dopamine becomes trapped in the synapse where it repeatedly binds to receptors and overstimulates the cell; unable to be still, inc. alertness and energy, heart stress, inc. aggression, in area of brain controlling voluntary movement, euphoria

LSD

serotonin, hallucination; mimic serotonin and binds to serotonin receptors, can be inhibitory or excitatory; wakefulness, hallucinations, near death experiences

heroin

inhibitory neurotransmitters, dopamine released; binds to opiate receptors, shutting down the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters -causes dopamine to flood the synapse; pain relief & emotion, sedation

ecstasy/molly

stimulant/mild hallucinations, serotonin (remove), body prefers artificial serotonin; taken up by serotonin transporters, serotonin becomes trapped in synapse, repeatedly binding to receptors and exciting the cell; high energy, dehydration, connectedness with others, permanently depressed mood

marijuana

inhibits dopamine from being released, hallucinogen, mild depressant; binds to receptors and turns off release of inhibitory neurotransmitters, excess dopamine floods the synapse; mild depressant, relaxes, impair motor coordination, mild hallucinations

awake but relaxed

alpha waves, high frequency, alert and aware but crossing slowly into first stage of sleep, lowest amount of time

NREM-1

theta waves, slower than alpha waves, sensations from environment filter into dreams, hypnagogic sensation - feeling of falling and jolting awake

NREM-2

sleep spindles - rapid bursts of rhythmic brain activity; awakened without much difficulty but asleep