COMPS Exam Study Guide: Qualitative Analysis of Social Action

This study guide will be used to study all of the material from my qualitative analysis course

What are the key characteristics that differentiate qualitative research from quantitative research? Provide examples to illustrate your points.

Qualitative and quantitative research approaches offer distinct ways of investigating phenomena, and these differences are reflected in their application to communication disorders research (Keegan, 2012). Qualitative research aims to explore and understand experiences, while quantitative research seeks to measure and quantify relationships between variables.

Key Differentiating Characteristics

• Nature of Data

• Research Questions

• Objectives

• Methods

• Sample Size

• Analysis

Examples to Illustrate the Differences

• Research Question

• Data Collection

• Data Analysis

Nature of Data: Qualitative Research

Employs non-numerical data, such as interview transcripts, observational notes, and textual documents, to explore meanings and patterns within the context of communication disorders (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003). For example, Fourie et al. (2009) used qualitative methods to explore the therapeutic relationship in speech and language therapy from the perspectives of adults with acquired communication and swallowing disorders.

Nature of Data: Quantitative Research

Focuses on numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to establish relationships between variables relevant to communication disorders (Schlosser, 2018). For instance, Law, Garrett, & Nye (2004) conducted a meta-analysis to quantify the efficacy of treatment for children with developmental speech and language delay/disorder.

Research Questions: Qualitative Research

Investigates "how" and "why" questions to gain in-depth insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals with communication disorders. Westby et al. (2003) highlights the use of ethnographic interviewing to understand clients' perspectives.

Research Questions: Quantitative Research

Addresses "what," "how much," or "how many" questions to quantify the extent or magnitude of a phenomenon related to communication. Selin et al. (2019) present that various clinical factors of children (e.g., using verb tenses, forming complex sentences) influenced SLPs' decision-making process when diagnosing and treating children with specific language disorders.

Objectives: Qualitative Research

Aims to generate hypotheses and explore new perspectives related to communication disorders, often giving voice to the experiences of clients and their families.

Objectives: Quantitative Research

Seeks to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships in the context of communication disorders.

Methods: Qualitative Research

Employs methods like in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnography, and case studies to gather rich, descriptive data (Keegan, 2012). Ethnographic research methods are described in the literature on speech-language pathology care, such as the ethnographic interview (Westby et al., 2003) or the qualitative and/or quantitative analysis of video recordings of in-person therapy with people with aphasia (Merlino, 2021).

Methods: Quantitative Research

Uses experimental designs, surveys, standardized assessments, and statistical analyses to collect and analyze numerical data (Keegan, 2012).

Sample Size: Qualitative Research

Typically involves smaller, purposefully selected sample sizes, focusing on in-depth understanding rather than broad generalization.

Sample Size Quantitative Research

Often requires larger sample sizes to ensure the generalizability of findings to a larger population.

Analysis: Qualitative Research

Data is analyzed through thematic analysis, content analysis, or discourse analysis to identify patterns, themes, and meanings within the data.

Analysis: Quantitative Research

Data is analyzed using statistical methods to test hypotheses and determine the significance of relationships between variables.

Example of Qualitative Research Question

What are the lived experiences of individuals with aphasia participating in group therapy? (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 1999)

Example of Quantitative Research Questions

What is the effect of a specific intervention on the articulation skills of children with phonological disorders? (Law, Garrett, & Nye, 2004)

Example of Qualitative Data Collection

Conducting semi-structured interviews with individuals with aphasia to explore their perceptions of group therapy and its impact on their communication and social interactions (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 1999).

Example of Quantitative Data Collection

Administering a standardized articulation test to children with phonological disorders before and after an intervention to measure changes in their articulation accuracy (Law, Garrett, & Nye, 2004).

Example of Qualitative Data Analysis

Using thematic analysis to identify common themes in the interview transcripts, such as increased confidence, improved communication strategies, or enhanced social connectedness (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 1999).

Example of Quantitative Data Analysis

Performing a t-test to compare the pre- and post-intervention articulation scores of the children to determine if the intervention resulted in a statistically significant improvement (Law, Garrett, & Nye, 2004).

Summary of Qualitative and Quantitative Differences

In summary, both qualitative and quantitative research methods are valuable in the field of communication disorders. Qualitative research provides rich, in-depth insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals with communication disorders, while quantitative research offers numerical data to test hypotheses and generalize findings to larger populations (Keegan, 2012).

Discuss how qualitative research can help uncover the complexities of social action. What methodologies are particularly effective in this context?

Uncovering Complexities of Social Action

• Contextual Understanding

• Exploring Perspectives

• identifying Social Processes

• Generating Theory

Effective Methodologies

• Ethnography

• Case Study

• Grounded Theory

• Discourse Analysis

Uncovering Complexities of Social Action

Qualitative research is essential for understanding the complexities of social action, particularly in communication disorders, because it focuses on the experiences and perspectives of individuals (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003). This approach allows researchers to explore how communication disorders affect social interactions and relationships.

Context Understanding

Qualitative research examines phenomena in their natural settings, providing insights into how social environments influence communication (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003). For instance, research shows how the social context of individuals with aphasia affects their communication strategies (Westby et al., 2003).

Exploring Perspectives

This research method prioritizes the voices of individuals with communication disorders and their families, revealing their unique experiences. For example, qualitative studies have highlighted how families adapt to living with a member who has a speech disorder, emphasizing emotional and social adjustments (Lyons & McAllister, 2019).

Identifying Social Processes

Qualitative research investigates the social dynamics that influence communication, such as cultural beliefs and power structures. It can reveal how these factors shape interactions for individuals with communication impairments (Damico, 1999).

Generating Theory

Qualitative studies can lead to the development of new theories about social action in communication disorders. For instance, research has used qualitative methods to understand how individuals with stuttering perceive their communication experiences and social identity (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 1999).

Ethnography

This approach involves deep immersion in a community to understand cultural and social practices (Damico, 1988). In communication disorders, it can help researchers see how individuals with disabilities interact in their daily lives (Westby et al., 2003).

Case Study

Case studies provide in-depth insight into individual experiences with communication disorders, allowing for a detailed examination of personal and social impacts.

Grounded Theory

This methodology develops theories based on data collected from participants (Charmaz, 2006). It’s useful for exploring processes, such as how families cope with a loved one’s communication challenges (Lyons & McAllister, 2019).

Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis focuses on how language is used in social contexts, revealing communication patterns of individuals with language impairments. This method can highlight the strategies used by individuals to navigate social interactions.

Explain the concept of meaning-making in qualitative research. How does understanding meaning-making impact the research process?

Meaning-Making in Qualitative Research

Key Aspects of Meaning-Making

• Subjective Interpretation

• Contextualization

• Narrative Construction

• Social Interaction

Impact on the Research Process

• Research Question Formulation

• Data Collection

• Data Analysis

• Interpretation and Representation

• Clinical Implications

Examples in Communication Disorders

• Aphasia

• Autism

• Stuttering

Meaning-Making in Qualitative Research

In qualitative research, meaning-making refers to the process by which individuals interpret and understand their experiences, constructing a coherent narrative that gives significance to their lives and social interactions. It's about exploring how people make sense of their world, particularly in the context of communication disorders, where experiences can be deeply personal and shaped by unique challenges. Qualitative research, as applied to communication disorders, describes and explains human communication in terms of its meaning in the lives of people living in their specific social contexts.

Key Aspects of Meaning-Making: Subjective Interpretation

Meaning-making acknowledges that understanding is subjective and influenced by individual perspectives, cultural backgrounds, and personal histories.

Key Aspects of Meaning-Making: Contextualization

Meanings are always situated within specific contexts, and qualitative research aims to capture these nuances to provide a rich and detailed understanding (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003).

Key Aspects of Meaning-Making: Narrative Construction

Individuals create narratives to organize their experiences and make sense of events, and qualitative research seeks to uncover these stories.

Key Aspects of Meaning-Making: Social Interaction

Meaning-making is often a social process, influenced by interactions with others and shared cultural understandings.

Impact on the Research Process: Research Question Formulation

Meaning-making guides the development of research questions that explore the lived experiences and perspectives of individuals with communication disorders. Instead of focusing solely on objective measures, researchers ask questions about how individuals perceive their communication abilities, how they cope with challenges, and what meanings they ascribe to their experiences.

Impact on the Research Process: Data Collection

Data collection methods, such as interviews and observations, are designed to elicit rich descriptions of experiences and perspectives. Researchers prioritize building rapport with participants and creating a safe space for them to share their stories in their own words. When conducting interviews with people with communication impairments, the process of establishing a point that the speaker wishes to make takes longer.

Impact on the Research Process: Data Analysis

Data analysis involves identifying patterns and themes in the data that reflect the ways participants make sense of their experiences. Researchers pay close attention to the language used by participants, the metaphors they employ, and the narratives they construct to understand their experiences.

Impact on the Research Process: Interpretation and Representation

Researchers interpret the data in light of the participants' perspectives and the broader social and cultural contexts (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003). They strive to represent the participants' voices authentically and avoid imposing their own biases or assumptions on the data.

Impact on the Research Process: Clinical Implications

An understanding of meaning-making can inform clinical practice by helping clinicians to better understand their clients' experiences and tailor interventions to meet their individual needs.

Examples in Communication Disorders: Aphasia

Qualitative research explores how individuals with aphasia make sense of their language loss and how it impacts their identity, relationships, and social participation.

Examples in Communication Disorders: Autism

Studies investigate how autistic individuals construct their understanding of themselves and their place in the world, challenging deficit-based perspectives and highlighting their unique strengths and perspectives.

Examples in Communication Disorders: Stuttering

Research examines how people who stutter make sense of their speech disfluencies and how it affects their self-esteem, social interactions, and career choices.

Compare and contrast at least three qualitative research methodologies discussed in the seminar. What are their strengths and limitations?

Ethnography

• Description

• Strengths

• Limitations

Phenomenology

• Description

• Strengths

• Limitations

Conversational Analysis (CA)

• Description

• Strengths

• Limitations

Ethnography: Description

Ethnography involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to understand its beliefs, values, and practices. In the context of communication disorders, ethnography explores communication patterns, social interactions, and cultural influences within specific groups or settings (Kovarsky & Crago, 1990-1991). Ethnographic assessment refers to the systematic study of individuals within their cultural context to gain a deeper understanding of their communication behaviors, needs, and challenges.

Ethnography: Strengths

• Provides in-depth understanding of communication within its natural context.

• Offers a holistic view of complex social settings and cultural nuances.

• Enhances diagnostic accuracy by considering the cultural context of an individual's communication patterns.

• May provide different perspectives of practices from a variety of stakeholders.

Ethnography: Limitations

• Time-consuming and resource-intensive.

• Potential for researcher bias and subjectivity.

• Findings may not be generalizable to other populations or settings.

• Limited quantitative data.

Phenomenology: Description

Phenomenology aims to understand the lived experiences of individuals and the meanings they ascribe to those experiences. It focuses on exploring the essence of a phenomenon as it is perceived by individuals, emphasizing their subjective interpretations.

Phenomenology: Strengths

• Provides rich, detailed data about participants' lived experiences.

• Offers an authentic perspective by prioritizing participants' voices and interpretations.

• Enhances clinical practice and research in SLP by promoting a more nuanced understanding of the complex interactions between individuals with communication disorders, their communication partners, and the environment.

• Demonstrates respect for the whole individual.

Phenomenology: Limitations

• Subjectivity and potential for researcher bias.

• Small sample sizes limit the generalizability of findings.

• Time-consuming data collection and analysis.

• Reliance on participants' ability to articulate their experiences.

Conversational Analysis (CA): Description

Conversational Analysis (CA) is the systematic study of conversations to understand how individuals communicate effectively or ineffectively. It involves detailed examination of the structure, content, and dynamics of conversations to identify patterns and anomalies that may indicate underlying speech or language disorders.

Conversational Analysis (CA): Strengths

• Provides a naturalistic view of communication, capturing the complexities and nuances of real-life interactions.

• Helps identify specific areas of difficulty for individuals with communication disorders, such as turn-taking or topic maintenance.

• Informs the development of targeted and effective treatment plans.

• Captures the complex and dynamic nature of communication.

Conversational Analysis (CA): Limitations

• May neglect broader social and cultural contexts.

• Requires specialized training and expertise in CA techniques.

• Can be time-consuming and labor-intensive.

• Focuses on micro-level interactions, potentially overlooking macro-level influences.

Describe the importance of field-based research in qualitative studies. How does it contribute to the authenticity of social activity?

Importance of Field-Based Research:

• Contextual Understanding

• Authenticity of Social Activity

• Discovery of New Insights

• Enhanced Relevance

Contribution to Authenticity of Social Activity

• Naturalistic Observation

• Participant Voices

• Rich Contextual Detail

• Prolonged Engagement

Importance of Field-Based Research

Field-based research is crucial in qualitative studies because it provides a deep understanding of communication behaviors in real-life settings. This approach is especially important in communication disorders, where social interactions are influenced by various contextual factors (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003).

Importance of Field-Based Research: Contextual Understanding

Field-based research allows researchers to observe communication in natural environments, considering the social and cultural factors that affect interactions (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003). For example, the support systems available to individuals can significantly impact how they communicate.

Importance of Field-Based Research: Authenticity of Social Activity

By studying individuals in their everyday contexts, researchers capture authentic social interactions. This contrasts with laboratory settings, where behavior may be influenced by artificial conditions. Observing communication as it naturally occurs enhances the validity of the findings.

Importance of Field-Based Research: Discovery of New Insights

Field-based research often uncovers unexpected findings that might not emerge in controlled settings. Being open to these discoveries allows researchers to gain a more comprehensive understanding of communication disorders and their impacts (Damico et al., 1999).

Importance of Field-Based Research: Enhanced Relevance

Studying communication in natural settings increases the relevance of research findings to real-world practice (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003). This knowledge directly informs the assessment and treatment of individuals with communication disorders.

Contribution to Authenticity of Social Activity: Naturalistic Observation

Field-based research relies on observing individuals in their daily lives, capturing genuine social interactions. This approach highlights how people communicate without the influence of experimental conditions.

Contribution to Authenticity of Social Activity: Participant Voices

This research method values the perspectives of individuals, allowing them to share their experiences. Listening to individuals with communication disorders provides a richer understanding of their challenges and social contexts.

Contribution to Authenticity of Social Activity: Rich Contextual Detail

Field-based research offers detailed information about the environments in which communication occurs, helping researchers interpret behaviors accurately (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003). Understanding the context enhances the validity of the findings.

Contribution to Authenticity of Social Activity: Prolonged Engagement

Researchers often spend extended periods with participants, building trust and gaining deeper insights into their social worlds. This engagement ensures that the data collected is authentic and reliable (Damico et al., 1999).

Field-Based Discovery: Conclusion

In summary, field-based research is essential for understanding communication disorders in real-world contexts. It provides valuable insights into authentic social activity, enhancing the relevance and validity of qualitative findings (Keegan, 2012). By focusing on natural interactions and participant perspectives, researchers can better inform clinical practices and improve outcomes for individuals with communication disorders (Simmons-Mackie & Damico, 2003).

What does it mean for qualitative research to be empirically defensible? Provide examples of how this can be achieved in practice.

Empirical Defensibility in Qualitative Research

Key Aspects of Empirical Defensibility

• Credibility

  • Member Checking

  • Triangulation

• Transferability

• Dependability

  • Creating an Audit Trail

• Confirmability

  • Reflexivity

Achieving Empirical Defensibility in Practice

• Triangulation

• Member Checking

• Audit Trail

• Purposeful Sampling

Empirical Defensibility in Qualitative Research

Empirical defensibility means that qualitative research findings are credible, reliable, and based on solid evidence rather than just the researcher’s opinions. This concept is vital for ensuring that the research accurately reflects participants' experiences and can be trusted by others (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Credibility

This refers to how believable the findings are.

Member Checking

Sharing findings with participants to verify accuracy (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). For example, after interviewing individuals with aphasia, researchers might return to them with a summary of findings to ensure it reflects their experiences.

Triangulation

Using multiple data sources (like interviews and observations) to confirm findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Transferability

This is about how applicable the findings are to other settings. Researchers can improve transferability by:

• Providing rich, detailed descriptions of the research context and participants (Morse, 2015). For instance, detailing the specific environment where communication interactions occur can help others understand how findings might apply to different contexts.

Dependability

This refers to the consistency of findings over time.

Creating an Audit Trail

Documenting the research process, including data collection and analysis procedures (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This transparency allows others to follow the research steps and assess the findings.

Confirmability

This involves ensuring that the findings are shaped by the participants rather than the researcher’s biases.

Reflexivity

Reflecting on their own biases and how these might affect the research (Morse, 2015). This helps to clarify how the researchers’ perspectives may influence the interpretation of data.

Purposeful Sampling

Selecting participants who can provide diverse perspectives ensures that findings are representative of the population. For instance, including individuals with different types of communication disorders can enrich the data collected.

Choose a specific qualitative method (e.g., interviews, focus groups, ethnography) and discuss its application in a real-world social issue. What insights can it provide?

Ethnography and Stuttering in the Workplace

Real-World Social Issue: Stuttering in the Workplace

Insights from Ethnographic Research:

• Understanding Workplace Culture

• Identifying Communication Strategies

  • Covert Stuttering

  • Open Stuttering

  • Assistive Technology

• Exploring Social Interactions

  • Microaggressions

  • Stereotyping

  • Social Exclusion

• Examining Emotional Impact

  • Anxiety and Stress

  • Frustration and Shame

  • Resilience and Empowerment

• Informing Workplace Accommodations

  • Flexible Communication Options

  • Awareness Training

  • Mentoring Programs

• Peer-Reviewed Support

Ethnography and Stuttering in the Workplace

Ethnography, a qualitative research method involving immersion in a culture or social group, can provide valuable insights into the experiences of individuals who stutter (IWS) in the workplace. By observing and interacting with IWS in their work environments, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the challenges they face, the strategies they use to cope, and the impact of stuttering on their professional lives.

Real-World Social Issue: Stuttering in teh Workplace

Stuttering, a fluency disorder characterized by disruptions in speech, can significantly impact an individual's experiences in the workplace. Despite their skills and qualifications, IWS may encounter discrimination, negative perceptions, and communication barriers that hinder their career advancement and job satisfaction.

Insights from Ethnographic Research: Understanding Workplace Culture

Ethnography can reveal how workplace cultures and communication norms affect IWS. For example, a workplace that values rapid and fluent communication may create additional pressure and anxiety for IWS, leading to avoidance behaviors or decreased participation.

Insights from Ethnographic Research: Identifying Communication Strategies

Ethnographic studies can identify the communication strategies IWS employ to navigate workplace interactions. These strategies may include:

• Covert Stuttering

• Open Stuttering

• Assistive Technology

Identifying Communication Strategies: Covert Stuttering

Hiding or minimizing stuttering through word substitutions, circumlocution, or avoiding speaking situations (Douglass & Tetnowski, 2015).

Identifying Communication Strategies: Open Stuttering

Acknowledging and openly stuttering, while educating colleagues about stuttering and advocating for their communication needs.

Identifying Communication Strategies: Assistive Technology

Utilizing tools such as speech-to-text software or alternative communication devices to enhance communication effectiveness.

Exploring Social Interactions

Ethnography can uncover the dynamics of social interactions between IWS and their colleagues, supervisors, and clients. This may reveal instances of:

• Microaggressions

• Stereotyping

• Social Exclusion

Exploring Social Interactions: Microaggressions

Subtle, often unintentional, discriminatory behaviors or comments that communicate negative or hostile messages.

Exploring Social Interactions: Stereotyping

Negative assumptions or generalizations about IWS's competence, intelligence, or communication abilities.

Exploring Social Interactions: Social Exclusion

Omission from important meetings, projects, or social events due to communication difficulties.

Examining Emotional Impact

Ethnographic research can explore the emotional impact of stuttering on IWS's self-esteem, confidence, and well-being (ASHA, 2024). This may reveal feelings of:

• Anxiety and Stress

• Frustration and Shame

• Resilience and Empowerment

Examining Emotional Impact: Anxiety and Stress

Related to anticipation of stuttering, fear of judgment, and pressure to perform fluently.

Examining Emotional Impact: Frustration and Shame

Due to communication breakdowns, negative reactions from others, and perceived limitations in their professional abilities.

Examining Emotional Impact: Resilience and Empowerment

As IWS develop coping mechanisms, self-advocacy skills, and a positive self-identity.

Informing Workplace Accommodations

Ethnographic findings can inform the development of effective workplace accommodations and support systems for IWS. These may include:

• Flexible Communication Options

• Awareness Training

• Mentoring Programs

Informing Workplace Accommodations: Flexible Communication Options

Allowing IWS to communicate through email, instant messaging, or written reports instead of requiring verbal presentations or phone calls.

Informing Workplace Accommodations: Awareness Training

Educating colleagues and supervisors about stuttering to promote understanding, empathy, and inclusive communication practices.

Mentoring Programs

Pairing IWS with successful professionals who stutter to provide guidance, support, and role modeling.

What ethical considerations should researchers keep in mind when conducting qualitative research? How do these considerations differ from those in quantitative research?

Ethical considerations are paramount in both qualitative and quantitative research, ensuring the protection of participants and the integrity of the research process. However, the specific ethical challenges and approaches to addressing them can differ between the two methodologies.

General Ethical Principals

• Respect for Persons

• Beneficence

• Justice

• Informed Consent

• Confidentiality and Anonymity

General Ethical Principals: Respect for Persons

Recognizing the autonomy and rights of individuals to make their own choices.

General Ethical Principals: Beneficence

Maximizing benefits and minimizing potential harm to participants.