PSY101: Final Key Terms

Phonemes

smallest units of sound in a language; also have equivalents in sign languages

Morphemes

smallest units of meaning; include content and function morphemes

Content morphemes

morphemes that carry standalone meaning (e.g., “cat”)

Function morphemes

morphemes that modify meaning/grammar and cannot stand alone (e.g., “-s”)

Syntax

rules governing sentence structure and word order

Semantics

meaning of words and sentences

Pragmatics

how context influences communication

Infinite generativity

ability to form infinitely many sentences from finite rules

Recursion

embedding structures within structures, enabling infinite expression

Poverty of the stimulus

idea that children cannot learn language from input alone

Whole-object constraint

assumption that new words refer to whole objects

Shape bias

tendency to generalize words to objects of the same shape

Mutual exclusivity

assumption that each object has only one label

Overregularization

applying a grammatical rule too broadly (e.g., “eated”)

Pidgin

simplified communication system with limited grammar

Creole

fully formed language developed from pidgin

Critical period

developmental window when language learning is easiest

Word segmentation

finding word boundaries in continuous speech

Transitional probabilities

likelihood of one syllable following another

Broca’s area

brain region responsible for speech production

Broca’s aphasia

nonfluent speech with relatively preserved comprehension

Wernicke’s area

brain region responsible for language comprehension

Wernicke’s aphasia

fluent but meaningless speech with poor comprehension

Grice’s Maxims

conversational assumptions guiding inference

Maxim of Quality

assumption that people speak truthfully

Maxim of Quantity

assumption that people give necessary information only

Maxim of Relation

assumption that statements are relevant

Maxim of Manner

assumption that people speak clearly and unambiguously

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

theory that language shapes thought

Strong Sapir-Whorf

language determines thought

Weak Sapir-Whorf

language influences thought

Prototype theory

categorizing by comparing to an average category member

Typicality effect

typical items categorized faster

Graded membership

some category members rated as “better” examples

Exemplar theory

categorizing by comparing to stored examples

Superordinate category

broad category (e.g., animal)

Basic-level category

commonly used category (e.g., dog)

Subordinate category

specific category (e.g., golden retriever)

Ad hoc category

temporary, goal-based category

Confirmation bias

seeking evidence that supports existing beliefs

Belief bias

evaluating arguments based on believability, not logic

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Wason Selection Task

reveals difficulty in seeking falsifying evidence

Mental models

reasoning via internal representations of what is true

Premise typicality

generalizing more from typical examples

Premise monotonicity

more examples increase strength of generalization

Premise diversity

varied examples support broader generalization

System 1

fast, automatic, effortless thinking

System 2

slow, deliberate, effortful thinking

Attribute substitution

replacing a hard question with an easier one

Representativeness heuristic

judging probability by similarity to a prototype

Availability heuristic

judging frequency by ease of recall

Anchoring and adjustment

relying on an initial value and insufficiently adjusting

Illusion of control

belief that one can influence random events

Gambler’s fallacy

belief that a random process is “due” to reverse

Hot hand fallacy

belief in streaks indicating increased future success

Prospect theory

theory of decision-making under risk using reference points

Reference point

baseline from which gains and losses are judged

Loss aversion

losses feel worse than equivalent gains feel good

Diminishing sensitivity

subjective value changes less as magnitude increases

Probability weighting

overweighting small probabilities, underweighting large ones

Certainty effect

strong reaction to changes near 0% and 100%

Endowment effect

ownership increases perceived value

Status quo bias

preference for current state due to loss aversion

Framing effect

outcomes appear different depending on gain/loss framing

Scope insensitivity

tendency to ignore scale when making judgments

Evaluability hypothesis

reliance on attributes easy to evaluate

Reason-based choice

choosing options that are easiest to justify

Linear model

predictive model using weighted variables

Proper linear model

uses optimized weights for prediction

Improper linear model

uses equal weights but performs well

Noise

random variability in human judgment

Bias

systematic deviation from accuracy

LLM

large language model trained to predict next word

Training data bias

model reflects bias within its dataset

Cognitive offloading

shifting memory or processing to external tools

Cognitive debt

reduced learning due to overreliance on tools like AI

Transactive memory

shared memory across people or devices

Phone proximity effect

reduced cognitive capacity when phone is nearby

Id

primal desires governed by pleasure principle

Ego

mediator governed by reality principle

Superego

moral conscience

Psychodynamic theory

personality shaped by unconscious conflicts

Big Five traits

five major personality dimensions (OCEAN)

Fundamental Attribution Error

overattributing behavior to personality

Correspondence bias

assuming behavior reflects traits even when situational

Actor

observer bias

Self-fulfilling prophecy

expectations influence behavior to confirm them

Good Samaritan Study

helping behavior determined by time pressure

Milgram experiment

obedience shaped by authority contexts

Wisdom of crowds

collective accuracy depends on diversity and independence

Conformity

adjusting behavior to align with group norms

Asch conformity study

people conform to obvious wrong answers

Autokinetic effect

ambiguous motion leads to group norm convergence

Common knowledge effect

shared info dominates discussion over unique info

Bystander effect

others’ presence reduces likelihood of helping

Diffusion of responsibility

feeling less responsible when in a group

Pluralistic ignorance

misinterpreting others’ inaction as a norm

Robbers Cave experiment

intergroup conflict arises from competition

Superordinate goals

shared goals requiring cooperation reduce conflict