Navigation ABC

Navigation

process of planning, monitoring, and controlling the movement of aircraft from one place to another

Types of Navigation

3 types;

Pilotage

DED Reckoning

Radio Aids

Pilotage

Depending solely on the pilot,

flying from point to point using landmarks,

visually identified from the cockpit

Deductive (DED) Reckoning

Used in low alltitude, Slow speed aircrafts, by Mathematical Calculations based on: Speed, Distance,Track, Elapse Time.

Radio Aids

Advanced type of navigation

Based on sending & receiving signals From Ground Equipment To aircraft’s Embedded Receivers. as;

1.VOR

2.DME

3.NDB

4.RMI

4.ILS

VOR

Very high frequency Omni-directional Range

operating in 108-118 MHZ frequency band.

Ground-based facility Providing 360 radials

Rely on “line of sight” transmiting a two-phase directional signal

Line of Sight in VOR

Line between Neutral Eye Height

and a line Tangent to plane’s nose

in VOR concept; straight line between

Transmitter and Receiver.

VOR Types

1. VOR

2. VOR\DME

3. VORTAC or TACAN

   ‘Tactical Air Navigation system’

DME

Distance Measuring Equipment of the Aircraft to the Station that

Measures Ground Speed, Distance & Time

by Sending and Receiving Pulses

Limitations:

measuring only Slant range between them.

which is Slightly Higher than the Actual horizontal distance.

Resulting in inaccuracy in speed and time readings when airplane is flying in any other direction than to or from the station.

When flying over the station. it reads distance based on the airplane height in nautical miles

1NM

= 6,080 Feet

MORIS Code

Pilots are required to understand this and be able to identify aircraft call signs as NDB's and VOR's

VOR Volumes

T ‘Terminal’

L ‘Low Altitude’

H ‘High Altitude’

T ‘terminal’ VOR

From 1,000 feet AGL

to 12,000 feet AGL

at radial Distances out to 25 NM.

L ‘low altitude’ VOR

From 1,000 feet AGL to 18,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM.

H ‘high altitude’ VOR

From 1,000 feet AGL to 14,500 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM.

From 14,500 feet AGL to 18,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM.

From 18,000 feet AGL to 45,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 130 NM.

From 45,000 feet AGL to 60,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM.

MRA

Minimum reception altitude at which a waypoint can be identified using two VOR.

NDB

Non Directional Beacon is an

Economic ground Low Frequency radio transmitter

received by the aircraft’s onboard

Auto Direction Finder ‘ADF’equipment

with its radials propagating around any obstacle to reach its receivers.

CONS; not accurate at;

1. Night

2. Shoreline

3. Bank

RMI

Radfio Magnetic Indicator.

simplify flying NDB approaches by eliminating the need to add magnetic heading calculations

ILS

Primary system for instrumental approaches nowadays

Providing horizontal & vertical guidance.

Consisting of 2 ground equipments;

1. Localizer

2. Glide slope

   along with distance-measuring equipment

Localizer

In the opposite end of the Runway

Received Up to 18NM, & 4,500 feet

4X more Sensitive than VOR.

Glide Slope

Ground ‘UHF’ Ultra High Frequency.

in the 1st 1000' from the Runway

Displaced from the Centerline

Insuring 3° slope Glide path &

ensures aircraft is 50ft Above THR

Precision Approach

Provide Lateral and Vertical Guidance

Localizer + Glide Slope

ex. ILS app,

Non-Precision Approach

Provide Lateral Guidnance only,

VOR app,

Localizer app,

NDB app,

RNAV app

ILS Categories

CAT I

CAT II

CAT III; A, B, C

Based on; Visibility, Decision height, & RVR

CAT I

(DH>200ft)

Decision Height Not Less Than 200 feet

(RVR>550m)

RVR Not Less Than 550 meter

CAT II

-(100>DH>200ft)

Decision Height Less than 100 But Not Less than 200 feet

-(RVR>300m)

RVR Not Less Than 300 meter

Company’s Policy

1. PF & PM Validated for CAT2 approach on license.

2. CAT2 Equipped & Approved Aircraft & Runway.

CAT III

3 Types: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie

No Decision

No RVR

RNAV

AREA Modern Navigation System

Allowing aircraft to fly directly to the waypoint without passing over

Ground Equipment.

INS

One of the initial systems Enabiling RNAV.

Inertial Navigation System, Self Contained

Detecting plane’s motion and

Indicates its displacement by using

1. Accelometer to know Speed

2. Gyroscope to know heading

• INS updates position from the last known location.

• small errors accumulate over time due to speed/time miscalculations

Corrected by IRS

IRS

The Inertial Reference System

laser gyros reduced the noise

results in overall reduction of integration drift

Having its own database saving the aircraft Motion and Comparing it to the Initial position not using the last position.

RNP

Required Navigation Performance

GPS

Global Positioning System:

Part of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).

used to be 24 now, 33 satellites in orbit, operating in 6 orbital planes.

Requires

• 2D position uses 3 satellites

• 3D position uses 4+( +altitude).

• Accuracy affected by signal delays due ionosphere/troposphere.

Enhancements:

• SA (Selective Availability): Removed to improve accuracy.

• DGPS (Differential GPS): Uses ground stations for ±5m accuracy.

FMC

💘 of flight manegment system providing

Centralize Control for

Navigation and Preformance managment

FLP is Loaded on it before flight calculating;

1. Air & Aircraft’s Position

2. Fuel Consumption & ETA

HSI

Horizontal Situation Indicator

Reduce Pilot’s Monitoring Workload by Combining;

Heading, VOR, ADF, ILS, Indicators together in one Panel

RMI

Displays two VORs or two ADFs or a combination of both, along with Heading.

Climb Gradient Calculations

Rate of Climb =

(Gradient in Ft./nm × Ground Speed) ÷ 60

Rate of Climb =

Gradient in % × Ground Speed

Descent Calculations

The required distance to run =

(altitude ÷1000 × 3)+10

For every 3 knots Headwind -1 nm

For every 3 knots Tailwind +1nm

Leading Radial

where craft starts its turn to

Intercept its intended course

the Heavier & Faster the craft is

the Earlier it will start Turning.

3 Approaches

LDA, MLS and SDF, APPROACHES

(SDF) Simplified Directional Facility

• Providing final approach course similar to an ILS localizer.

• Course width is at 6° or 12° for optimal approach quality

• may not align with the runway & less precise than an ILS.

• Usable indications are within 35° of the course centerline.

• Indications beyond 35° are uncontrolled and should be ignored.

• The antenna may be offset, with a convergence angle ≤3°written in approach chart.

(LDA) Localizer Type Directional AID

• Similar in accuracy to a localizer but not part of an ILS.

• Course width is 3° to 6°, more precise than SDF.

• include Glide Slope.

• Not aligned with RWY.

• Straight-in minimums applyif course within 30°

  of RWY Centerline.

• If the angle exceeds 30°, only Circling minimums are published.

(MLS) Microwave Landing System

• provides Precision approach guidance.

• It offers, elevation (glide slope), and range information.

• Guidance is displayed on CDI or multifunction cockpit displays.

• Requires specialized airborne equipment not commonly found in general aviation.

• Includes data communication for system status, weather, and runway information.

VASI

• Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) provides visual descent guidance using two wing bars (upwind & downwind).

• On slope: Upwind bar red, downwind bar white.

• Too high: Both bars white.

• Too low: Both bars red.

• Some airports have three-bar VASI for large aircraft.

PAPI

• Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) provides visual descent guidance like VASI.

• Uses a single row of lights, usually on the left side of the runway.

TRI-color

• Tri-Color System provides visual approach guidance using a single light unit.

• Red indicates below the glide path.

• Green indicates on the glide path.

• Amber indicates above the glide path.

• A dark amber zone exists below the glide path but should not be mistaken for an "above" indication.

• Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator

• uses a single light unit for visual guidance.

• On glide path: Steady white light.

• Slightly below glide path: Steady red light.

• Further below glide path: Pulsating red light.

• Above glide path: Pulsating white light.

• Pulsating rate increases as the aircraft moves further above or below the glide slope.

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