exam 1 patho terms

IgM

• first to increase in immune response

• bound to T cells

• largest antibody

IgG

• most common

• crosses placenta

• creates neonatal passive natural immunity

IgA

• tears and saliva

• protects mucous membranes from toxins

• local immunity

IgE

• allergies

• releases histamines that result in inflammation

IgD

• activates B-cells

• delivers signals to B cells

contact-dependent

membrane to membrane contact

parocrine

secrete local mediations that are quickly taken up, destroyed or immobilized (sends everywhere)

autocrine

signals to themselves

hormonal signaling

• involves specialized endocrine cells that secrete chemicals

• travel through the blood stream to produce a response in other sets of cells

neurohormonal

released into blood by neurohormone secretory neurons

neurotransmitter

nerve cell directly communicates to cell

atrophy

decrease in size

hypertrophy

increase in cell size

hyperplasia

increase in cell number

metaplasia

change in cell phenotype

dysplasia

abnormal/deranged cellular growth

physiologic atrophy

thymus change in childhood

• decrease in uterine size after childbirth

pathological atrophy

• atrophy or denervation

• atrophy of disuse

• ischemia

• malnutrition

• pressure

ischemia

lack of blood

reperfusion

damage of reoxygenation

oxidative stress

increase indifferent reactive species, depletion of antioxidant defense

• injury caused by ROS

coagulative

• heart

• protein denaturation

• opaque appearance

liquefactive

• brain tissue

• enzymes eating themselves

• soft, runny appearance

fatty

• primarily in breasts, pancreas

• breakdown triglycerides

• opaque appearance

caseous

• lungs

• primarily intuberculosis infection

• combo of coagulative and liquefactive

necrosis

enlarged cell size

• swelling

• may leak out of cell

apoptosis

fragmentation of nucleosome-size fragments

• often physiologic

• pathologic: cell injuries

autophagy

recycling

C3B

opsonins

• coats like glue

C5A

leukocyte chemotaxis

• attracting and activating WBCs

C3A-C5A

anaphylatoxins

• rapid and release histamines

• leaky capillaries

C6-C9

cellysis/MAC attack

• drilling holes to allow water in cell membrane

complement system

intensifies the capacity of antibodies and phagocytes to clear pathogens, activate inflammation

clotting system

• forms a blood clot

• fibrin/fibrinogen

kinin system

• interacts with the clotting system, bradykinin

TNF-a

tumor necroting factor alpha

• muscle wasting

• respond to virtually an injury

IL-1

fever-causing

IL-6

• stimulate growth

• protein production

• repair

IL-10

anti-inflammatory

SIGNS of inflammation

• redness

• heat

• edema

• pain

• loss of function

adherence

• 1st step

• enhanced by opsonization

margination

• roll against vessel

• increased adhesion

diapedesis

emigration of cells

chemotaxis

movement against chemical gradient

vasodilation

increased diameter of blood vessels that increase the volume of blood delivered to the injured site

• result in erythema and warmth in the area

increased capillary permeability

proteins and large molecules are last into interstitial fluid

prulent

foul odor

• white, yellow, green

• indicates infection

serous

blister

• watery fluid

• normal

fibrinous

thick and clotted

• normal

hemorrhagic

full of RBCs

• thick and STICKY

• indicates infection

• hemorraging = BAD

cytokines

intercellular signaling molecules

• secreted by many different types of cells

• bind to specific cell membrane receptors

chemokines

chemotaxis

• stimulate migration of cells

phase 1: inflammation

• coagulation (hemostasis)

• damage to blood vessels causes immediate vasoconstriction followed by vasodilation

• infiltration of platelets, neutrophils, macrophages

phase 2: proliferation and new tissue formation

• macrophages

• dissolve clot (hemostasis)

• granulation tissue = invasive cells (red beefy appearance)

• epithelialization (moist wound improves process)

phase 3: remodeling and maturation

• cell differentiation

• scar formation

• scar remodeling

primary intention

clean-approximate wound

• surgical cut

• paper cut

secondary intention

open wound, requires extensive epithelialization

• dog bite

• pressure ulcer

• done without intention

clinically important normal flora

• candida albicans

• clastridium difficile

• lactobacillus

opportunistic infections

illnesses that occur when the bodies immune system is down and affected

• people with HIV are more at risk

viral infection

• acellular, capsid

• dependent on host cells

• influenza, covid-19

• viral hepatitis, HIV, AIDS

• binding, penetration, uncoating, replication, budding

• cell-mediated

bacterial infections

• humoral

• single-celled prokaryotes

• tuberculosis, UTI, C-diff, staph.

• DOES NOT require an enriched environment to survive

• most common cause of SEPSIS

bacterial resistance to antibiotics

• produce surface coats that inhibit phagocytosis and toxins

• generate a large surface capsule to block off access of antibiotics

exotoxin

• staphylococcus aureus

• polypeptide

• both gram NEGATIVE and gram POSITIVE

• can be used for a vaccine

endotoxin

• only gram NEGATIVE

• integral part of cell wall

• heat-tolerable

• E. coli

• lipopolysaccharide complex

1. Sustained proliferative aging

• Foremost hallmark of cancer: uncontrolled cellular proliferation

Proto-oncogenes

genes that direct normal cellular proliferation

Oncogenes

mutated or overexpressed proto-oncogenes

2. Evading growth suppression

• Tumor-suppressor genes (anti-oncogenes)

• Regulate cell cycle (stop mitosis)
  ◦ Inhibit proliferation
  ◦ Stop cell divisions if cell is damaged ◦ Prevent mutations

hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM)

condition where the heart muscle (myocardium) becomes abnormally thick

acromegaly

excessive production of growth hormone (GH) by the pituitary gland

cervical dysplasia

abnormal cells grows on the surface of the cervix

systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

chronic autoimmune disease where the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks its own healthy tissues and organs

hyperthyroidism (Grave’s disease)

the thyroid gland produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones

hypothyroidism (Hashimoto’s thyroiditis)

the body’s immune system attacks the thyroid gland, leading to inflammation and damage

rheumatoid arthritis

chronic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints, causing inflammation, pain, and stiffness

inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)

group of chronic conditions that cause inflammation in the digestive tract

keloid scarring

abnormal overgrowth of scar tissue that extends beyond the original wound boundaries

wound contractures

a condition where the edges of a healed wound pull together, resulting in a tight, inflexible scar

3. genomic instability

• increased tendency for genetic mutations

• increased risk of cancer

4. replicative immortality

• normal body cells are not immortal

• cancer cells are able to have limitless replicative potential

5. angiogenesis

• growth of new blood vessels

• essential in tissue undergoing repair

6. reprogramming energy metabolism

• warburg effect and reverse warburg effect

• deregulate proliferation

7. resistance to apoptotic cell death

• apoptosis is programmed cell death

8. tumor-promoting inflammation

• chronic inflammation is an important factor in the development of cancer

• tumor-associated macrophage (TAM)

9. avoiding immune destruction

• normal immune system protects against cancer

• tumor associated antigens

10. activating invasion and metastasis

invasion: local spread, pre-req for metastasis

metastasis: spread of cancer from a primary site of origin to a different site

benign tumors

grow slowly, encapsulated, not invasive, cane become LARGE

lipoma (fat cells)

leiomyoma (smooth muscle of uterus)

meningioma (meninges)

malignant tumors

grow rapidly, not encapsulated, invasive

carcinoma (epithelial tissue)

adenocarcinoma (ducal or glandular tissue)

sarcoma (mesenchymal tissue, connective tissue)

lymphoma (lymohatic tissue)

leukemia (blood-forming cells)

type 1: immediate hypersensitivity

• IgE antibodies, allergies

• insect bites, food allergies, certain drugs

type 2: cytotoxic antibod hypersensitivity (specific)

• IgG antibody activation of complement cascade

• autoimmune disease, fetal Rh incompatibility

• specifically targeted at a particular tissue

• Grave’s disease

• involves IgM

type 3: immune complex disease

• immediate development

• SLE

• serum sickness, glomerular nephritis

• deposition of IgG and IgM

type IV: cell-mediated hypersensitivity

• delayed

• T cells/macrophages destroy antigen-coated host cells

• contact dermatitis, granuloma, poison ivy

primary immune response

• occurs at 1st exposure

• produces IgM and IgG

secondary immune response

• occurs at the next exposure

• more rapid production

• memory cells

• can eliminate the antigen

• IgG is the main player

CD8 killer T cells

kill virus infected host cells through cytolysis

CD4 inflammatory T cells

enhance activities of phagocytes

dendritic cells

antigen presenting cells (APCs) to T cells