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Public Order Act 2023
This law was introduced in the wake of environmental protests by individuals who blocked the road network and prevented motorists from going about their daily business. The law made protests that disrupted the road network punishable with up to 12 months in prison. Threatened the individual right to assembly, while protecting the collective right to peaceful enjoyment of possessions
How is politics associated with the activities of the state?
Associated with the classical concept of politics, originating in Ancient Greece. In this view, politics focuses on the activities of government and is conducted by politicians and officials, in which most people are outside political activity.
How is politics associated with "Public affairs"?
Human affairs are divided into the public and private spheres. Politics does not involve itself with the private concerns of the individual and is instead focused on the 'public' affairs of the community. In some totalitarian political systems the state dominates all human affairs to such an extent that there is almost no private sphere left e.g. Stalinist Russia and modern North Korea.
How is politics associated with the search for consensus?
Some people would say that politics is a method of conflict resolution, even though it might be more accurate to describe it as a method of consensus, as some can't be resolved. Politics mediates between conflicting ideas and interests through negotiation, comprimise and conciliation. These peaceful methods are the alternative to the use of violence or bribery.
How is politics associated with the production, distribution and use of resources?
Political conflict is created by scarcity and diversity of resources, especially the distribution of economic resources. Karl Marx and Marxism focus on this and the struggle to control them between classes. He felt that revolutionary political action was the proletariat's only option to take power in society.
What are the 3 conflicts at the heart of politics?
Ideas, interests, power
What are ideas and how do they cause conflict in politics?
Voters, activists and politicians are all motivated by ideas of how society ought to be governed. From local councils to the United Nations, we see the clash of ideas at all levels of politics. Political actors who are deeply committed to ideology desire radical change because they desire the complete implementation of their own political system, and this means that when ideologies clash politics can become very volatile.
What happens to states after generations of ideological conflict?
States tend to be a mixture of ideologies e.g. in the UK there is the NHS, which is socialist, and the Bank of England, which is liberal and the police which is conservative.
What are ideologies?
A collection of coherent political ideas that provide a blueprint for society. For instance, the ideology of socialism is based on the ideas of equality, collectivism, worker control and class.
What are the most successful ideologies in western politcs?
Socialism, liberalism and conservatism.
Examples of ideological conflicts in the UK
When Jeremy Corbyn became the leader of the Labour Party in 2015 he opened up an ideological gap between Labour and the Conservatives that had been narrowed by his more moderate predecessors. There was significant ideological conflict within the Labour party with seven Labour MPs leaving the party in 2019 to form a new party called Change UK. Similarly, since the economic crisis of 2008, nationalism had radicalised the right-wing of UK politics (Brexit)
Idea and opposing idea about income tax
Income tax should be lowered for more disposable wealth VS Income tax should be high to pay for public services.
Idea and opposing idea about immigration
Immigration should be strictly controled to protect jobs VS we should welcome immigrants to fill gaps in the job market
Idea and opposing idea about the EU
UK should rejoin the EU to reduce business red tape and ease travel VS UK should respect the democratic decision to leave the EU
What are interests?
An interest is a group in society that seeks to achieve some improvement in its circumstances through political action. An interest can be either occupational, regional or representatives of industries. Interests may organise themselves into pressure groups to campaign and influence governement.
Pressure groups attached to Labour
Trade Unions
Pressure groups more closely attached to the Conservative Party
Taxpayers Alliance and Migration Watch
Supporting and opposing interests on HS2
Supporting groups may be business groups and people from the north, opposing groups may be local residents along the route
Supporting and opposing interests on new oil/gas fields
Supporting groups may be energy companies and consumers, opposing groups may be environmental groups
Supporting and opposing interests on press regulation
Supporting groups may be victims of press intrusion, opposing groups may be free speech campaigners and newspaper owners
Why do people seek political power?
To improve society or to show their status
Examples of the struggle for power in politics
Parties competing for control of government at national, regional and local elections, Individuals competing at elections to become local, regional or national representatives, Senior politicians compete to be appointed to the 'front bench' in either government or opposition, in cabinet, there is a struggle to become prime minister.
Why is power conflicy most commonly associated with politics?
The media
Representative democracy
A form of democracy in which an individual selects a person to act on their behalf
What must MPs do during an election campaign?
Individual MPs must defend their voting record and show how they have promoted the interests of their constituency. At the same time opposition candidates can criticise the MP and offer their own alternatives.
Social representation
This implies that the representative bodies should be broadly in line with characteristics of the population it represents. For example, close to half of the representative should be women, a proportion should be drawn from ethnic minorities and there should be a range of ages and classes. In this type of representation the UK Parliament certainly falls short.
Reprensentative of national interest
Wherever they were elected all those MPs sitting in the national Parliament are expected to represent the interests of the nation as a whole. Sometimes issues that involve the national interest may clash. Fortunately not all issues of national interest cause such a dilemma. For example, foreign policy issues usually do not have local effects.
Consituency representation
Can mean representing the constituency as a whole in issues that affects local people such as immigration or building developments. It can also mean representing individual constituents. This is often described as the redress of grievances such as if a constituent has been unfairly treated by a public body such as the NHS or been a victim of a miscarriage of justice. It can also mean listening to constituents' views when deciding a national issue. This can lead to a dilemma if the representative does not personally agree with the majority of the constituents
Party representation
Almost all MPs are members of a party, with stated values and policies. At election time the party produces a specific list of policies called a manifesto. In public, party candidates must support the manifesto in its entirety because they represent the party to voters.
Sectional representation
Some MPs will represent not only their party and constituency but also the interests of a particular section of society. This work is often carried out through APPGs.
What is an APPG?
An All Party Parliamentary Group. APPG members meet to discuss a particular issue of concern
and explore relevant issues relating to their topic. APPGs regularly examine issues of policy relating to a
particular areas, discussing new developments, inviting stakeholders and government ministers to speak
at their meetings, and holding inquiries into a pertinent matter.
Causal representation
Here representative bodies are not representing specific groups of people, instead they represent causes, or ideas, which are of importance to the whole community. Typical causes include environmental protection and individual rights and freedoms. While MPs play a role, this type of representation is largely carried out by pressure groups.
What is the jurisdiction of devolved administrations?
The governments of Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have varying powers but all deal with health, social services, education, policing and transport.
What is the jurisdiction of local councils?
These may be county councils, district councils or metropolitan councils depending on where you live. They deal with local services such as education, public transport, roads and planning
What is the jurisdiction of metropolitan authorities?
This is big city government such as in London or Manchester. These bodies deal with strategic city issues like policing, public transport, arts funding, environment, large planning issues and emergency services. They normally have an elected mayor.
What is the jurisdiction of national government?
This is the jurisdiction of the UK Parliament and the UK government at Westminster. It controls education, healthcare, foreign affairs, defence and taxation.
What is the jurisdiction of parish councils?
They deal with local issues such as parks and gardens, parking restrictions, public amenities and small planning issues.
For argument for the practicality of representative democracy
It's the only practical system in a large modern state. Issues are complex and require multiple decisions. Also, a rapid response is sometimes needed e.g. deploying troops.
Against argument for the practicality of representative democracy
The practicality of using representatives has the downside of disengagement and less participation. In 1950 turnout was 84%, but in 2001 turnout was 59%.
For arguments for the coherence of representative democracy
Parties bring coherence to the political system; both government and opposition would be disorganised without parties to provide leaders and policies.
Against arguments for the coherence of representative democracy
Party factionalism (in-fighting) can undermine the coherence of the political system e.g. in 2015 Corbyn found it difficult to find Labour MPs willing to serve in his shadow cabinet and so parliamentary scrutiny like question time was ineffective due to the lack of a shadow minister to hold the government to account.
For arguments for the choice provided in representative democracy
Parties provide a real choice of representative to voters with ideologies from the left, right and centre available to choose from.
Against arguments for the choice provided in representative democracy
Smaller parties find it hard to be elected to Parliament, even if they have popular support e.g. UKIP won 3.8 million votes and only got 1 MP.
For arguments for the representation and protection of minorities in representative democracy
Minority rights are protected by the moderating influence of the First Past The Post electoral system, which keeps extremist parties out of Parliament and ensures only moderate MPs (committed to respecting minority rights) are involved in making new laws.
Against arguments for the representation and protection of minorities in representative democracy
Parliament is not reflective of wider society. Estimates suggest only 6% of peers and 8 % of MPs come from a minority background. This is lower than the ethnic diversity of the UK, which is 18%, based on the 2021 census.
For arguments for removing representatives in representative democracy
Elections allow people to hold MPs to account with elections held at least every 5 years.
Against arguments for removing representatives in representative democracy
If an MP holds 'safe seat' with a large majority it is unlikely they can be removed by an election. Although in 2019 only 37 seats were won by a margin of 50%+ whereas 67 were won by just 5% or less.
For arguments for education in representative democracy
Politicians are better informed than the average citizen with 85% having attended university.
Against arguments for education in representative democracy
MPs are generalists, not experts. Their views are often dictated by the party whips. Politics is the most popular subject (20%) but there are very few scientific graduates in Parliament.
Direct Democracy
A form a government in which all individuals express their opinions themselves, not through representatives. The main method is through referendums.
How does a recall petition work?
A method of direct democracy that was brought in in 2015. It is a means of allowing constituents to remove their MP between elections. Can occur if a MP commits a crime/breaks the rules of Commons/false election expenses claims. A petition is then opened in the MP's constituency for six weeks. If 10% of the MP's constituents sign it the MP loses their seat and a by-election is held (in which the MP could stand).
Advantages of direct democracy
Encourages popular participation in politics. Gives decisions great legitimacy as they have been made by the people. Can break a deadlock in the political system. Purest form of democracy as the people's will is heard.
Disadvantages of direct democracy
Impractical in a large, modern state where decision-making is complicated. Many people will not feel qualified to take part in decision-making. Open to manipulation by the cleverest and most articulate speakers, who will persuade people to support their viewpoint. Will of the majority is not mediated by parliamentary institutions, so minority viewpoints are disregarded.
European Community Referendum (UK)
1975 - YES 67% NO 23% Turnout 64%
The Tories had taken the UK into the European Community (the EU's predecessor) in 1973. Labour won power in 1974 but it was divided over the EC. To resolve this division Labour leader Harold Wilson promised to renegotiate the UK's membership and put the result to a referendum. Both Labour and the Conservatives supported remaining in the EC. The result was an strong YES vote.
Scottish Parliament Referendums (Scotland)
1997 - Parliament - YES 75% NO 25% Turnout 60%
Tax raising powers - YES 63% NO 37% Turnout 60%
Plans for the devolution of powers to a Scottish Parliament had been brewing since the first SNP victory in 1967. In 1997, Labour and the SNP supported reform but for opposite reasons. The Scottish National Party (SNP) believed it was a step towards independence, while Labour hoped devolution under a Labour government would stop people voting for the SNP. So when Labour won power again in 1997 it held this referendum.
1979 Referendums on Scottish and Welsh devolution.
In 1979 there was a referendum on creating a Scottish parliament. Although YES won 51% of the vote the YES vote did not translate into 40% of the electorate because the turnout was too low then in 1979 the Tories won power and opposed devolution. A referendum for a Welsh Assembly took place in 1979 at the same time as the one in Scotland, but unlike the result in Scotland, the YES campaign won only 20% of the vote.
Welsh Assembly Referendum (Wales)
1997 - YES 50.7% NO 49.3% Turnout 50%
In 1997 the weakness of Welsh nationalism meant the referendum was approved by a sim margin.
Good Friday Agreement Referendum (Northern Ireland)
1998 - YES 72% NO 28% Turnout 81%
The Good Friday Agreement ended most of the violence of 'The Troubles'. It agreed that there would be disarmament of paramilitary groups and addressed reform of justice and policing. Northern Ireland's current system of self- government based on 'power sharing' between republicans & nationalists was created by the agreement. The referendum legitimised the new systems of government.
Greater London Authority Referendum (London)
1998 - YES 72% NO 28% Turnout 34%
This asked whether there was support for the creation of a Greater London Authority, composed of a directly elected Mayor of London and a London Assembly to scrutinise the Mayor's actions. But turnout was low, at just 34%.
North East Assembly Referendum (North East England)
2004 - YES 22% NO 78% Turnout 48%
This was an attempt to provide devolution within England through a series of regional assemblies, but was decisively rejected, leading the government to abandon plans for further regional assemblies. The referendum failed partly because the government was unpopular after the invasion of Iraq in 2003, and partly due to a feeling the assembly would have too little power and thus was a waste of money.
AV Referendum (UK)
2011 - YES 32% NO 68% Turnout 42%
This referendum asked whether to change the westminster voting system from First Past the Post (FPTP) to Alternative Vote (AV). The Lib Dems led the YES campaign, the Tories opposed it and Labour was split. AV was rejected because critics of FPTP want a proportional system of voting, but AV is not proportional. And the Lib Dems were unpopular at this point in time so some voters voted against AV as an anti-Lib Dem protest.
Scottish Independence Referendum (Scotland)
2014 - YES 45% NO 55% Turnout 84%
In 2011 the SNP won a majority in the Scottish Parliament for the first time. Because an independence referendum was in the SNP manifesto the UK government had to agree to hold one. The SNP and Greens were the only parties to argue in favour of independence. SNP leader Alec Salmond resigned shortly after the result and was replaced by Nicola Sturgeon. The referendum result didn't settle the issue as the SNP pushed for 'IndyRef2' after the Brexit vote.
How did the EU become a divisive issue?
The EU became a divisive issue in the Conservative Party after the EU's Maastricht Treaty was signed in 1993. This created new social and employment rights, called the Social Chapter, and the euro currency. Although PM John Major opted out of both, eurosceptics in the Conservative Party knew that Labour supported the reforms and feared that the UK would eventually join. Some conservatives never forgave Major and left to form the UK Independence Party (UKIP)
Brexit Referendum (UK)
2016 - LEAVE 52% REMAIN 48% Turnout 72%
Led by Nigel Farage, UKIP drew enough Tory voters to prevent Cameron from winning the 2010 election and this led Cameron to offer an In/Out referendum in the 2015 manifesto. This helped Cameron win the election but it split his party when leading ministers like Johnson and Gove joined the Leave campaign, while Cameron led the Remainers. After a narrow defeat Cameron resigned. As did his successor, Theresa May, who could not negotiate a deal with the EU that Parliament found acceptable.
What was the UK parlimentary expenses scandal?
A major political scandal that emerged in 2009, concerning expenses claims made by members of both the House of Commons and the House of Lords over the previous years. The disclosure of widespread misuse of allowances and expenses permitted to MPs aroused widespread anger among the UK public and resulted in a large number of resignations, sackings, de-selections and retirement announcements together with public apologies and the repayment of expenses.
Ian Paisley Jr recall petition
In 2018, a recall petition was called by his constituency of North Antrim, as a result of his 30 day suspension from the house. 9.4% signed the petition, so it was unsuccessful and no by-election took place.
Fiona Onasanya recall petition
In 2019, a recall petition was called by her constituency of Peterbourgh, as a result of a custodial sentence of 3 months. 27.6% signed the petition, so it was successful and a new Labour candidate, Lisa Forbes was elected.
Christopher Davies recall petition
In 2019, a recall petition was called by his constituency of Brecon and Radnorshire, as a result of a conviction for providing false or misleading expenses claims. 18.9% signed the petition, so it was successful and a Lib Dem was elected, Jane Dodds
Margaret Ferrier recall petition
In 2023, a recall petition was called by her constituency of Rutherglen and Hamilton West, as a result of a 30-day suspension from the House. 14.7% signed the petition, so it was successful and Michael Shanks was elected
Suffrage
right to vote
Franchise
The qualifications that set out who has the right to vote
40 Shilling Freeholders
1430 - Law passed the franchise at own/rent a property worth 40 shillings
When where Welsh Citizens allowed to vote in English Parlimentary legislation?
From 1535
Acts of Union
1707/1801 - Scotland and Ireland unite with England and Wales, so their citizens can vote in UK Parlimentary elections
First Reform Act/The Great Reform Act
1832 - End rotten boroughs and give seats to new industrial towns
Second Reform Act
1867 - Property qualification is reduced in the cities. All urban male workers can vote
Third Reform Act
1887 - The property qualification is reduced in the countryside. All rural working men can vote
The Representation of the People Act (1918)
Abolished the property qualification for men, women over 30 were allowed to vote if they met the property qualification, confirmed subjects of the British Empire are not aliens and can vote
Equal Franchise Act
1928 - Voting age for men and women is equalised at 21, property qualification for women is abolished
The Representation of the People Act (1969)
Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18
European Parlimentary Election
1979 - The first EP electio in the UK allowed EU citizens to vote. Last EP election in the UK was 2019
Scottish Elections Act
2015 - Lowered voting age from 18 to 16 for Scottish local and parlimentary elections
Local Government and Elections (Wales) Act
2021 - Lowered voting age from 18 to 16 for Welsh local and parlimentary elections
Campaign to lower the voting age
Led by the Votes at 16 coalition. The coalition comprises of 67 organisations including the British Youth Agency, National Union of Students and the Electoral Reform Society. All the main political parties support the lowering of the voting age to 16, with the exception of the Conservatives - although certain individual Conservative MPs back the campaign e.g. Peter Bottomley.
Campaign to give prisoners the vote
The campaign to give prisoners the vote comprises of several organisations, including Howard League of Penal Reform, Prison Reform Trust, Liberty. The SNP is the only major political party to have supported prisoner voting (although on a limited basis).
Timeline of the campaign for 16 year olds to vote: 2001
Lib Dems include a commitment to votes at 16 in their manifesto for the first time
Timeline of the campaign for 16 year olds to vote: 2003
The Votes at 16 coalition is formed
Note 
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