Couch (MacMillan, Basingstoke) (2016): urban planning - an introduction

Why is understanding the history of urban change and planning important for professional planners?

Understanding history allows planners to know the origins and evolution of their profession1 . It also enables them to learn from the achievements and mistakes of earlier generations in creating places and mediating the use of space2 . Furthermore, much urban policy is based on ‘incremental adaptation’ of previous solutions, requiring knowledge of past planning and design efforts

Where did the earliest urban societies emerge, and what are some examples?

The earliest urban societies appear to have emerged in Mesopotamia and the Indus valley, with Uruk in Mesopotamia being a potential first city (around 5,000 bc)4 . Later cities developed in ancient Egypt (Memphis, Thebes) and particularly in Greece (Athens, Corinth, Sparta)

What evidence suggests that many early cities were planned?

Many early cities show traces of planned features such as a separation of land uses, prominence given to civic and religious buildings, planned grid street patterns, and boundaries defined by walls or fences

Who is known as ‘the father of town planning’ and for what reason?

Hippodamus of Miletus (498–408 bc) has been called ‘the father of town planning’ for his work in designing the layout of numerous Greek cities, such as the port city of Piraeus near Athens

Describe the typical layout of planned towns in the Roman civilization.

Roman walled cities were typically laid out as a grid-iron defined by two major streets: the east–west Decumanus (often a main military route) and the north–south Cardo (a kind of high street), intersecting at the main forum or market-place7 . Streets were usually paved and drained

How did urban development in Europe during the post-Roman and medieval periods differ from that of the classical period?

In the post-Roman period, urban life in Europe dwindled, and reurbanization in medieval times was largely slow and organic with little regulation and no comprehensive planning, unlike the formal organization found in the classical city

What were some reasons for establishing new towns in Europe between the twelfth and eighteenth centuries?

New towns were developed for purposes of colonization and control (e.g., ‘bastide’ towns, Londonderry)10 , commercial and political reasons (e.g., Le Havre, Zamość, Neustrelitz)10 , and as planned reconstructions after disasters (e.g., Sicilian cities, Lisbon)

What impact did the removal of city walls have on urban development in some European cities? Give examples

The removal of city walls provided scope for substantial urban development projects. For example, the demolition of walls in Paris permitted the construction of the ‘grands boulevards’12 , and Vienna's Ringstrasse was developed after the removal of walls as a broad boulevard with grand buildings

How did colonial expansion influence urban planning? Give an example.

Colonial expansion led to many planned settlements in the ‘new world’13 . For instance, the form of most North American cities was controlled from the beginning through the imposition of a rectangular grid of streets and building blocks

What was the dominant pattern of urban expansion and restructuring in most European cities before the nineteenth century?

Until at least the nineteenth century, the majority of the expansion and internal restructuring of most European cities was organic, unplanned, and uncoordinated, with little concern for the social costs of individual actions

Why does the discussion of modern urban planning in the text primarily begin with the industrial revolution?

The industrial revolution led to the emergence of the contemporary city with significant social, economic, political, and environmental complexity and unprecedented speed of expansion15 .... This dramatically increased the need for state intervention to plan and manage cities

What were some key factors that contributed to the UK being the first industrialized nation?

The UK possessed a relatively stable political system supporting a free market, entrepreneurialism, and free movement of labor17 . It was also well endowed with raw materials (coal, water) and had a comparatively good transport system, along with economies of scale from a dense and growing population and a growing colonial empire

Define 'primary urbanization' in the context of the industrial revolution.

Primary urbanization involved the creation of new workplaces for basic economic activity (industries exporting goods or services), and housing for workers and their families

How did extractive industries influence urbanization? Give examples.

Extractive industries had to be located where raw materials were found, thus stimulating urbanization in their locality. Examples include mining settlements in Tyneside, South Yorkshire, Wallonia, Silesia, and the Ruhr basin

Explain 'secondary urbanization' and provide examples.

Secondary urbanization followed primary urbanization as basic industries and their workers needed support from non-basic economic activities, such as investment in infrastructure, ancillary industries, financial and legal services, housing, food, clothing, education, religion, and leisure22 .... The provision of local governance, healthcare, and education are also elements

What is 'tertiary urbanization' based upon?

Tertiary urbanization is based upon the larger markets, agglomeration economies, and comparative advantages that emerged with the growth of industrial and commercial centers23 .... Competition drives firms to seek economies of scale, making larger cities more attractive

How did the growth of the middle class in the nineteenth century affect urbanization?

The expanding middle class with rising spending power accelerated suburbanization as they sought to move from disease-ridden inner cities25 .... It also led to a different form of urbanization based on consumption in spa and seaside towns

What distinguished the urbanization of London and Paris in the nineteenth century?

The urbanization of London and Paris was distinguished by their sheer scale, history, and cultural and political dominance, requiring increasingly sophisticated financial services (London) and central government (London and Paris)28 .... They developed unique positions in the urban hierarchy due to their agglomeration of wealth and economic power

Describe the impact of market forces on the structure and dynamics of the industrial city.

Market forces led to increased intensity of land use and restructuring of urban areas due to competition for central locations, which bid up land prices31 .... This resulted in the replacement of sub-optimal land uses with higher-density developments

What were the consequences of the early industrial revolution on working-class housing conditions? Why did this occur?

The early industrial revolution led to a deterioration in working-class housing conditions with dense, poor-quality housing becoming the norm33 .... This was due to migration for employment, industrialists limiting wages, and developers maximizing density and minimizing quality to achieve profit under a 'laissez-faire' economic philosophy and limited government intervention

How did the expansion of the service sector and the growth of the middle class restructure the nineteenth-century city?

The growth of the service sector led to a growth in office employment that desired central locations, outbidding other uses due to high profit per unit area37 .... The rising spending power of the middle class stimulated the development of more substantial retail areas in city centers due to their need for accessibility

What was the impact of the railway on the development and renewal of the nineteenth-century city?

The construction of railways caused immense destruction of property and displacement of people and businesses41 . It also reordered the pattern of accessibility, enhancing land values and stimulating new land uses (e.g., hotels, warehousing) near stations while reducing values in areas affected by noise and pollution

How did improvements in urban transportation affect urban sprawl and land values?

Transportation improvements enabled greater distances to be traveled for the same cost, leading to urban sprawl and a fall in the density of development43 .... This resulted in central and inner-area rents falling and peripheral rents rising, with rental income becoming more thinly spread

Describe the difference in the pattern of urban expansion before and after the widespread use of the motor vehicle

Until the early twentieth century, transportation improvements along radial routes led to a star-shaped pattern of expansion. The motor vehicle accelerated these trends, filling in the gaps between the points of the star and extending the urban boundary rapidly outwards

What forces maintained the importance of city centers in the twentieth century despite suburbanization? What eventually led to decentralization?

City centers remained important due to increased service sector employment and as the primary location for comparison goods retailing due to their accessibility as the focus of transport networks47 .... Significant decentralization of retail activity began in the mid-twentieth century in North America and later in Europe

What was the general attitude of the state towards intervening in urban areas before the mid-nineteenth century?

Apart from indirect involvement in infrastructure, the state's desire to intervene in urban areas and their development was relatively weak until the middle of the nineteenth century, despite significant urban problems

Provide examples of early paternalistic endeavors in providing housing and amenities for industrial workers.

Examples include New Lanark (founded by David Dale and developed by Robert Owen)49 ..., Saltaire (developed by Sir Titus Salt)51 ..., Port Sunlight (developed by William Lever)52 ..., and Bournville (developed by the Cadbury brothers)54 .... These provided decent housing, schools, healthcare, and other facilities.

What were the first significant state interventions in urban development in the UK and what did they aim to achieve?

The first significant interventions were regulatory Acts of Parliament, such as the Public Health Acts of 1848 and 1875, which aimed to improve urban water supply, sewerage, street cleansing, and housing quality56 . The Artisans and Labourers Dwellings Improvement Act of 1875 gave local authorities powers for slum clearance and re-housing

Name some key figures and their works that contributed to the early literature on town planning.

Key figures include Camillo Sitte (Der Städtebau nach seinen künstlerischen Grundsätzen, 1889), Joseph Stübben (Der Städtebau, 1890/1907), and Ebenezer Howard (Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform/Garden Cities of Tomorrow, 1898/1902)

What were the key ideas proposed by Ebenezer Howard in his vision of Garden Cities?

Howard proposed to replace existing conurbations with groups of smaller, separate but integrated ‘garden cities’ built at low densities with large areas of green space61 . He advocated for communal ownership of land and moving the working classes out of high-density central cities

What was the influence of the Garden City movement in the UK and elsewhere?

Howard's ideas led to the formation of the Garden City Association and the development of the first garden city at Letchworth62 .... The movement also influenced the creation of similar ‘garden city associations’ in Germany and the development of projects like Margarethenhöhe in Essen

Describe the key characteristics and goals of the City Beautiful movement in the USA.

The City Beautiful movement, reacting to the poor state of nineteenth-century cities, proposed the beautification of cities, promoting ‘civic virtue’ and a harmonious urban society64 . It influenced the redesigning of central city areas in cities like Chicago and Washington DC

How was the planning of Canberra, Australia, influenced by different urban planning movements?

Walter Burley Griffin's plan for Canberra integrated new ideas in town planning, architecture, and landscape design. It was influenced by the ‘city beautiful’ movement (grand axes, vistas, landmarks) as well as emerging modernist ideas about land use zoning and neighborhoods

How did Germany's approach to town planning in the nineteenth century differ from that of the UK?

German city authorities began to intervene in the planning of new settlements much earlier than in the UK68 . The Prussian Allgemeine Landrecht (1794) allowed the state to limit private land use in the common interest68 .... Town extension planning became normal in German cities, while the UK relied more on market forces69 .... However, early German extension planning did little to control housing density, leading to overcrowded conditions

What did the UK's Housing, Town Planning, Etc. Act of 1909 enable urban authorities to do?

The Act permitted urban authorities to prepare town planning schemes for peripheral areas about to be developed. These plans could set out road layouts, zone land for different uses, determine development densities and dwelling types, and identify sites for public buildings and open space71

Describe the key features and goals of the city improvement programmes undertaken in French cities in the nineteenth century, using Paris under Haussmann as a prime example.

Driven by concerns about public health, social unrest, and the need for modernization, central government encouraged larger French cities to undertake ambitious improvement programmes72 . The aim was to improve circulation and access, especially to railway stations, and to modernize infrastructure like water and sewerage72 .... Haussmann's work in Paris involved creating new thoroughfares, but initially did little to improve conditions in poorer neighborhoods

What were the key provisions of the Netherlands' Housing Act of 1901?

The Act empowered municipalities to establish building regulations controlling housing quality, recognized and financed building associations to develop new housing for social needs, and required large and growing municipalities to prepare extension plans

How did the profession of town planning begin to emerge in the early twentieth century?

A new profession emerged, initially dominated by municipal surveyors, engineers, and architects76 . William Lever sponsored a Chair and Department of Civic Design at the University of Liverpool76 . The journal Town Planning Review (from 1910) and the formation of the Town Planning Institute in the UK (1914) provided forums for discussion and professional development

What was Patrick Geddes' key contribution to the theory of town planning?

In his 1915 book Cities in Evolution, Geddes argued that a plan for a geographical region must start with a survey of that region and its human activities, followed by analysis of these characteristics and relationships before a plan can be drawn up. This 'survey – analysis – plan' dictum remains central to planning process theory

What were the primary concerns and recommendations of the Tudor Walters Committee (UK) during the First World War regarding future council housing?

Influenced by Raymond Unwin and the garden cities movement, the committee recommended the building of generously proportioned, traditionally constructed houses in low-density, well-landscaped cottage estates

How did housing provision in the UK during the inter-war period reflect the ideas of the garden city movement?

The Housing, Town Planning, Etc. Act, 1919 (Addison Act) provided subsidies for mass public sector housing construction on a large scale, often featuring low-density cottage estates, reflecting the influence of the garden city movement

Describe Le Corbusier's vision for the Ville Contemporaine (later Ville Radieuse) and how it differed from the garden city idea.

Le Corbusier proposed a high-rise, high-density city using modern construction techniques, a much bigger and more compact urban environment than Howard's garden city82 . The Ville Radieuse featured tall towers to free up ground space for circulation and parkland, with functional zoning

What was Frank Lloyd Wright's concept of Broadacre City?

Broadacre City was a vision of an extremely low-density city where each family would have one acre of land to build a home, representing a suburban utopia freed from the perceived evils of the city84

How did the General Extension Plan of Amsterdam (1934) reflect Patrick Geddes' approach to plan-making?

The plan, developed by Cornelis van Eesteren and Theo van Lohuizen, used a scientific approach based on surveys and data analysis (population forecasts, housing needs) from various specialist professions, reflecting Geddes' 'survey – analysis – plan' methodology

Describe Clarence Perry's concept of the 'neighbourhood' as a spatial unit for residential planning

Perry proposed planning residential areas as ‘neighbourhoods’ with a population sufficient to support a primary school, local shops, and community facilities (3,000–5,000 people), designed so that these amenities were within a 10-minute walk and through traffic was kept to the periphery

What were the key drivers of urban sprawl in the UK during the inter-war period? What was 'ribbon development'?

Urban sprawl was fueled by subsidized low-density council house building, profitable speculative private house building, and the suburbanization of industry88 . 'Ribbon development' was the practice of building houses in the countryside along each side of major roads

What were the main findings of the Barlow Report (Royal Commission on the Distribution of the Industrial Population, 1940)?

The report found imbalanced regional growth, with rapid employment growth in London and the Home Counties compared to much slower or declining growth in the North, Scotland, and South Wales90 . This led to strain in the South-east and underused resources in the North. The report also recognized the problems of unplanned urban growth and sprawl

What were the different approaches to urban reconstruction after the Second World War? Give examples.

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Some cities, like St Malo and Warsaw's Old Town, aimed to recreate the past by rebuilding pre-existing structures as exactly as possible93 . Others, like many German cities, pragmatically kept street patterns but used cheaper new designs93 . Some took the opportunity to completely redesign along modernist lines (e.g., Plymouth, Coventry, Le Havre, Rotterdam)

Describe the key proposals of Abercrombie's Greater London Plan (1944).

The plan aimed to stabilize London's population and proposed four rings: an inner ring for redevelopment, a suburban ring with little change, a protected 'green belt', and an outer country ring with satellite 'new towns' to accommodate overspill population

How did the Copenhagen Finger Plan (1947) offer a different approach to metropolitan development compared to London's plan?

Unlike London's green belt restricting outward expansion, the Copenhagen Finger Plan proposed that the city would develop outwards along five axes (fingers) following commuter railway lines, with green wedges between them for agriculture and recreation, allowing for continuous growth along transport corridors

What was the purpose of the UK's New Towns Act of 1946? Give examples of early new towns.

The Act aimed to facilitate the building of 'new towns' to accommodate overspill population from central London and other cities, and to serve as economic growth points in declining regions99 .... Early examples include Stevenage, Harlow, and Crawley

What were the intended characteristics of the early UK new towns? How did this evolve over time?

Early new towns were intended to be as self-contained as possible, with a clear separation of land uses, well-designed road systems, and generous landscaping, planned on the neighbourhood principle100 .... Over time, self-containment decreased as private sector housing increased, outward commuting grew, and the relationship between home and workplace changed

How did the UK's 'expanded towns' programme under the Town Development Act, 1952, differ from the new towns programme?

The expanded towns programme involved agreements between local authorities to rehouse overspill population from an 'exporting' city in an 'importing' existing town or district103 . It was less funded than new towns but had the advantage of using existing facilities in the overspill town

What were the key features of the UK's Town and Country Planning Act, 1947?

The Act established a comprehensive planning system across the country104 . It designated County and County Borough Councils as local planning authorities with a duty to prepare development plans (County Development Plans and Town Maps)104 .... It also included a system of development control to enforce plans on private developers and a provision for betterment (capturing the increase in land value due to planning permission) to accrue to the state

How did urban renewal policies in the UK shift towards high-rise housing in the 1950s? What factors led to a reversal of this trend?

The government encouraged high-rise housing to achieve faster housing completions and higher densities, with the Roehampton Estate serving as an early example and changes in housing subsidy arrangements in 1956 favoring this form109 .... However, high-rise housing became unpopular due to higher costs, maintenance issues, tenant dissatisfaction, and the Ronan Point collapse in 1968, leading to a reversal of subsidies

What was the shift in focus from slum clearance to rehabilitation in UK urban policy in the 1960s? What initiatives supported this change?

Large-scale clearance became increasingly expensive and socially disruptive113 . The Housing Act, 1969, established the idea of General Improvement Areas, where local authorities improved the public realm and homeowners received subsidies for refurbishment

How did Ian Nairn's book 'Outrage' (1955) critique post-war planning and development in the UK?

Nairn criticized the production of an increasingly degraded physical environment due to what he termed as unchecked development, advocating for a greener countryside and more compact, neater towns, reflecting an early concern for sustainable development

What was Jane Jacobs' critique of modernist/rationalist city planning in her book 'The Death and Life of Great American Cities' (1961)?

Jacobs argued that the modernist approach of separating land uses and replacing vibrant neighborhoods with mono-functional housing projects was draining the life out of American cities116 .... She stressed the importance of high population densities, mixed-use areas, and diverse property types for vibrant urban economies and communities

How did the concept of urban conservation emerge in the planning agenda in the 1960s in France and the UK?

France introduced 'secteurs sauvegardés' (safeguarded areas) in 1962 to protect areas of historic or aesthetic interest118 . The UK's Civic Amenities Act of 1967 introduced Conservation Areas, defined as areas of special architectural or historic interest whose character should be preserved or enhanced, with stricter development control

What were some of the growing environmental concerns in the late 1960s and early 1970s that began to influence urban planning?

Concerns grew regarding the detrimental effects of pesticides (Silent Spring, 1962)120 , oil spills (Torrey Canyon, 1967; Santa Barbara, 1969)120 , and the limits to growth identified by the Club of Rome (1972)121 , highlighting the environmental costs of industrial production and unsustainable resource use

What were the key changes introduced by the UK's Town and Country Planning Act, 1968?

The Act proposed a two-tier system of strategic 'structure plans' (general policies) and tactical 'local plans' (detailed plans for smaller areas)123 . It also required local planning authorities to survey local social and economic conditions and made public participation in plan-making a legal requirement

How did the UK Government begin to address the issue of ‘urban deprivation’ in the late 1960s and early 1970s?

The Government launched a new 'urban programme' in 1968 providing subsidies for social projects in deprived areas125 .... This was followed by Community Development Projects (action-research) and large-scale Inner Area Studies to understand the nature and causes of deprivation

What were the major economic changes that occurred in the mid-1970s and how did they impact urban areas, particularly in the UK?

A combination of overseas events led to recession in western Europe128 . In the UK, industrial decline, closures, transfer of production abroad, and rising unemployment resulted in swathes of urban dereliction, particularly in old industrial regions

How did the UK Government's approach to urban economic regeneration shift under Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government from 1979?

There was a shift towards centralization of power, a marginalization of local authorities and the planning system, and an increasing emphasis on 'property-led' urban regeneration through 'urban development corporations' (UDCs) and 'enterprise zones', with a growing role for the private sector

What were Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) and what were their objectives and powers?

UDCs were central government-funded bodies responsible for promoting regeneration by reclaiming derelict land and buildings, providing infrastructure, and facilitating industrial, commercial, social, and housing development. They were given substantial funds and extensive development and planning powers

What was the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) and what were some of its key achievements?

The LDDC was one of the first and most well-known UDCs, responsible for the redevelopment of a vast area of derelict docklands in London133 .... Its achievements included significant public and private investment, reclamation of land, provision of new infrastructure, and the construction of the initial phases of the Docklands Light Railway

What is the most commonly used definition of 'sustainable development' and who introduced it?

'Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.' This definition was introduced in the Brundtland Commission's report (1987)

What were some of the key conclusions of the Brundtland Commission regarding urban areas in both industrialized and developing countries?

The Commission noted that the twenty-first century would be largely urban, with rapid growth in developing country cities facing challenges in providing infrastructure and shelter138 . Industrialized country cities would face problems of deteriorating infrastructure, environmental degradation, and inner-city decay. The Commission recommended explicit settlement strategies and decentralization of power to city governments

What was the significance of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992? What was Agenda 21?

The Earth Summit was a major international conference with widespread attendance, resulting in Agenda 21, a plan to prepare the world for the twenty-first century with proposals for the socio-economic dimensions of sustainable development, conservation of resources, strengthening stakeholder roles, and means of implementation

What did Agenda 21 call for regarding sustainable human settlement development?

Agenda 21 called for governments to provide adequate shelter for all, improve human settlement management (urban governance), promote sustainable land use planning, integrated environmental infrastructure, and sustainable energy and transport systems142 . It also urged local authorities to develop Local Agenda 21 (LA21) strategies

What were some of the problems facing European cities identified in the European Commission’s Green Paper on the Urban Environment (1990)?

Problems included increasing brownfield land, urban sprawl, pollution, loss of built heritage, and loss of nature from the city144 . Inflexible planning rules and an overemphasis on development were also seen as contributing factors

What proposals did the European Commission put forward in the Green Paper on the Urban Environment to address the problems facing European cities?

Proposals included more compact, higher-density, mixed-use cities; better urban design and heritage protection; reuse of derelict land; improved public transport; and better management of resources, energy, and waste

What is a 'Healthy City' as defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO)?

A healthy city is one "that is continually creating and improving those physical and social environments and expanding those community resources which enable people to mutually support each other in performing all the functions of life and developing to their maximum potential"

What is 'polycentric development' as outlined in the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP)?

Polycentric development is a concept promoting a multi-centred and balanced urban system that strengthens partnerships between nearby cities and between urban and rural areas to avoid excessive concentration in core EU areas

What were the key urban planning goals for sustainable development outlined in the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP)?

Goals included control of physical expansion; mixture of functions and social groups; wise resource management; better and environmentally friendly accessibility; and conservation of natural and cultural heritage

What were the main proposals of the UK's Urban Task Force report 'Towards an Urban Renaissance' (1999)?

The report proposed that cities should be compact, well connected, and well designed, supporting a diverse range of uses in a sustainable and adaptable urban environment, aligning with European thinking

What were the aims of the UK Government's 'Sustainable Communities: building for the future' programme (2003)?

The aim was to create sustainable communities with flourishing local economies; strong leadership; safe, healthy, and green environments; efficient land use; good public transport; a mix of decent homes; cultural diversity; and a sense of place

What did the Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities (2007) call for in terms of integrated urban development policy approaches?

The Charter called for approaches that analyze city strengths and weaknesses, define consistent development objectives, coordinate different plans and policies, coordinate and focus the use of funds, and involve citizens and other partners at local and city-regional levels154 .... It also emphasized attention to deprived neighborhoods

How did the UK Town and Country Planning Association (TCPA) and Friends of the Earth (FOE) advocate for the role of spatial planning in addressing climate change?

They argued that spatial planning can significantly contribute to tackling climate change by shaping new and existing developments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and build community resilience to climate change impacts

What were some of the socio-economic challenges facing European cities after the 2008 economic crisis, as highlighted by the European Commission?

Challenges included rapid demographic changes, faltering economic growth, weakening links between economic growth and social progress, growing income disparities and social segregation, and continued urban sprawl

What were some of the objectives for the future of urban planning set out by the European Commission in response to post-2008 challenges?

Objectives included creating more resilient and inclusive urban economies, fostering socially cohesive cities, adopting a more holistic approach to environmental and energy issues, and recognizing the importance of thriving small and medium-sized cities