Intro to Psychology - Exam 3

Chapters 5 and 13 from "Psychology" (Myers, DeWall, Gruber), 14th Edition

Period of the Zygote

• weeks 1 and 2

• also called “germinal” period

• fertilized egg

• implantation of zygote in the uterine wall triggers hormonal changes that prevent menstruation

Period of the Embryo

• weeks 3-8

• most rapid growth (body structures, internal organs, brain)

• heartbeat at 4 weeks

• amniotic sac (fluid filled cushion; provides constant temperature)

Period of the Fetus

• growth and finishing stage

• major organ systems formed by 12 weeks

• sex determinable by 12 weeks

• movement felt by mother around 16 weeks

Teratogen

environmental influence or agent that may harm a developing embryo or fetus (i.e. infectious diseases, smoking, alcohol, drugs, pollutants)

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

the unexpected death of an infant with seemingly no warning or cause

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

caused by maternal use of alcohol during pregnancy; leading cause of intellectual disability; results in slow growth, heart problems, misshapen faces, behavioral problems, etc.

Signs of a Competent Newborn

• automatic reflexes (sucking, swallowing, grasping)

• cries to elicit help/comfort

• smells and sees well; uses senses to learn

Maturation

orderly sequence of biological growth

Motor Development Skills

• develop as the nervous system and muscles mature

• primarily universal in sequence, but not in timing (ex., sit, crawl, walk, run)

• guided by genes and influenced by environment

Schemas

mental framework for understanding or acting on the environment

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation (as an infant gains familiarity, their interest wanes)

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accomodation

adapting current schemas to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor Stage

the stage at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities (Piaget’s theory)

Object Permanence

awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational Stage

the stage at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic (Piaget’s theory)

Egocentric

the preoperational child’s difficulty in taking another’s point of view (Piaget’s theory)

Concrete Operational Stage

the stage of cognitive development (~7-11 years of age) at which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events (Piaget’s theory)

Conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (lacking in young children; Piaget’s theory)

Formal Operational Thinking

stage of cognitive development (beginning ~12 years old) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Scaffold

framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking (Vygotsky’s theory)

Theory of Mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states

Stranger Anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Attachment Bond

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation

Critical Period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces typical development

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

Secure Attachment

children that have a strong, healthy bond with their caregivers, viewing them as a “secure base”; play and explore happily in mother’s presence, show distress when she leaves, seek contact when she returns

Insecure Attachment

marked by either anxiety or avoidance of trusting relationships; less likely to explore surroundings; anxious infants cling to mother and are upset when she leaves; avoidant infants seem not to notice or care about mother’s departure or return

Self-Concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, particularly in answer to the question “Who am I?”

Preconventional Morality

• before age 9

• self-interest

• obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

Conventional Morality

• early adolescence

• uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

Postconventional Morality

• adolescence and beyond

• actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

Social Identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships

Emerging Adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Attribution Theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Attitudes

feelings influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent (ex., when attitudes and actions clash, we can reduce dissonance by changing our attitudes)

Peripheral Route Persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by attention-getting cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

Central Route Persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

Chameleon Effect

the unconscious, automatic mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of others

Conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational Social Influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

Social Facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Legitimization of Authority

the concept that we are taught from a young age to obey authority figures without questin