(PSYC 2314) Final Exam Review

Body Mass Index (BMI)

the ratio of body weight to height

5 and 6 years-old

BMI is lower than in any other between the ages of…

Corpus Collosum

a long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them.

6-years-old

Jean Piaget believed that it was difficult for kids to think logically until…

Preoperational Intelligence

Piaget’s term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6; it includes language and imagination (which involves symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking isn’t yet possible.

Animism

the belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive, moving around, and having sensations and abilities that are humanlike

Irreversibility

a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred.

Conservation

the principle that the amount of a substance remains the same even when its appearance changes.

Initiative Versus Guilt

Erikson’s 3rd psychosocial crisis, in which young children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.

Protective Optimism

kids think they are better than they are and it helps them try new things

Optimistic Self-Concept

protects young children from guilt and shame, and encourages initiative

unrealistic self-concept

According to Erikson, young children have an ___________________ and believe they can achieve any goal.

Pretend Play

when a child is playing alone

Social Play

when a child plays with playmates

Authoritarian Parenting

an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication from child to parent.

unquestioned obedience

Authoritarian parents expect…

Permissive Parenting (Indulgent Parenting)

an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control.

Authoritative Parenting

an approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.

be friends with their child

Permissive parents want to…

lack self-control

Permissive parents create children who…

Time-Out

a disciplinary technique in which a person is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.

time-out

The most common disciplinary technique for a child’s misbehavior in North American households and preschools is…

Gender Differences

differences between male and female roles, behaviors, clothes, and so on that arise from society, not physiology.

Behaviorism Perspective of Gender

The theory of gender that states that gender roles are conditioned via reinforcement and/or punishment.

Social Learning Perspective of Gender

The theory of gender that states that children understand gender through the modelling of their parents.

Cognitive Perspective of Gender

The theory of gender that states that children’s immature thinking makes them want their appearances to match their gender.

Evolutionary Perspective of Gender

The theory of gender that states that gender roles arise from the biological desire to reproduce.

accidents/violence

The cause of death for young children that is more common than any other combined:

Child Maltreatment

intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age.

overweight

A child with a BMI above the 85th percentile [but below the 95th] is considered…

Childhood Obesity

in a child, having a BMI above the 95th percentile, according to the US CDC’s 1980 standards for children of a given age

Concrete Operational Thought

Piaget’s term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions.

middle childhood

Jean Piaget’s level third of cognitive development, Concrete Operational Thought, occurs during…

Seriation

the concept that things can be arranged in a logical series, such as the number sequence or the alphabet.

Aptitude

the ability to master a specific skill or to learn a certain body of knowledge

Aptitude Test

a test designed to measure one’s potential for learning a skill or body of knowledge.

Achievement

what is actually mastered

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

the correct answers (to a general “g” intelligence test) divided by the average for kids of that age group.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

a condition characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or by hyperactive or impulsive behaviors; it interferes with a person’s functioning or development.

ADHD

A child who is excitable, impulsive, very energetic, and has difficulty focusing may have…

boys

The hyperactivity symptom of ADHD is most commonly found in…

girls

The inattentiveness symptom of ADHD is most commonly found in…

US

Rates of ADHD have increased in the…

Industry Versus Inferiority

the 4th of Erikson’s psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent

Preconventional Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s first level of moral reasoning, emphasizing rewards and punishments.

Conventional Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s second level of moral reasoning, emphasizing social rules.

Postconventional Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s third level of moral reasoning, emphasizing moral principles.

Science of Human Development

the science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

Scientific Method

a way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions.

curiosity; asking questions

The first step of the Scientific Method

developing a hypothesis

The second step of the Scientific Method

testing the hypothesis

The third step of the Scientific Method

drawing conclusions

The fourth step of the Scientific Method

reporting the results

The fifth step in the Scientific Method

Nature

in development, it refers to genes. Thus, traits, capacities, and limitations inherited at conception.

Nurture

in development, it includes all environmental influences that occur after conception, from the mother’s nutrition while pregnant to the culture of the nation.

Lifespan Perspective (Multi-Disciplinary Perspective)

an approach to the study of human development that includes all phases, from conception to death

Critical Period

time when a particular development must occur. If it does not, as when something toxic prevents that growth, then it cannot develop later.

Sensitive Period

a time when a particular developmental growth is most likely to occur, although it may still happen later.

Cohort

people born within the same historical period who therefore move through life together, experiencing the same events, new technologies, and culture shifts at the same stages.

Sensorimotor Intelligence

Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, from birth to about 2 years old, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions

Behaviorism

a theory of human development that studies observable actions. It is also called “learning theory” because it describes how people learn to do what they do.

biological patterns found in infancy

Research has discovered that a person’s temperament is linked to…

learned

Personality traits are…

genetic

Temperamental traits are…

Temperament

inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It’s measured by the person’s typical response to the environment.

pride

The last emotion to develop in an infant is…

Amygdala

a tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety

Prefrontal Cortex

the area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control; the last part of the brain to mature

Neurotransmitters

a brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron

Synapses

the intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons

Failure to Thrive

a condition that may be caused by poor nutrition, allergies, the microbiome, or other medical conditions

Cesarean Section (C-Section)

a surgical birth in which incisions through the mother’s abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly instead of being delivered through the vagina.

Fetal Period

the stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the baby gains about seven pounds (<3000g) and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own.

Embryonic Period

the stage of prenatal development from about the third week through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop.

Germinal Period

the first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.

Epigenetics

the study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression — enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes.

Zygote

the single cell formed from the union of two gametes; a sperm and an ovum.

46

Each human has __ chromosomes.

Correlation

usually a number between +1.00 and -1.00 that indicates whether and how much 2 variables are related. Indicates whether an increase in one variable will increase or decrease another variable. Indicates only that two variables are somehow related, not that one variable causes the other to increase or decrease.

Longitudinal Research

a research design that follows the same individuals over time.

Cross-Sectional Research

a research design that compares people who differ in age but not in other important characteristics.

Dependent Variable

in an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of the independent variable. In other words, it depends on the independent variable.

Independent Variable

in an experiment, the variable that is added or manipulated by the researcher to see if it affects the dependent variable.

Experiment

a research method in which the researcher adds one variable and then observes the effect on another variable in order to learn if the independent variable causes changes in the dependent variable.

is more important than what they know.

To Jean Piaget, how children think…

Cognitive Theory

a theory of human development that focuses on how people think. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

Social (Observational) Learning Theory

a theory that emphasizes the influence of other people. Even without reinforcement, people learn via role models.

Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning

the learning process that reinforces or punishes behavior.

Classical (Respondent) Conditioning

when a living creature learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, gradually reacting to the neutral stimulus in the same way as to the the meaningful stimulus.

the caregiver is the base for the infant’s exploration

A sign of Secure Attachment (type B) is when…

Attachment

according to Ainsworth, “an affectional tie” that an infant forms with a caregiver — a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time.

forebrain

The limbic system is a cluster of brain areas located in the…

approximately 25% the weight of that of an adult’s.

The weight of a newborn’s brain is…

Preterm

a birth that occurs two or more weeks before the full thirty-eight weeks of the typical pregnancy; these babies are often low body weight.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Psychodynamic Theory)

a theory of human development that contends that irrational, unconscious drives and motives underlie human behavior.

Freud’s Oral Stage of Psychosexual Development

from birth to 18 months, where pleasure centers on the mouth.

Freud’s Anal Stage of Psychosexual Development

from 18 to 36 months, where pleasure centers on eliminative functions.

Freud’s Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Development

from 3 to 6 years, where pleasure centers on the genitals.

Freud’s Latency Period of Psychosexual Development

from 6 years to puberty, where pleasure is set aside.