Brain Bee Glossary

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A critical neurotransmitter that controls functions such as memory, attention, sleep, heart rate, and muscular activity

action potential

An electrical charge that travels along the axon to the neuron's terminal, where it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter. This occurs when a neuron is activated and temporarily reverses the electrical state of its interior membrane from negative to positive.

Adenosine

A neurochemical that inhibits wakefulness, serving the purpose of slowing down cellular activity and diminishing arousal. This neurochemical levels decrease during sleep.

Adrenal Medulla

An endocrine organ that secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine in concert with the activation of the sympathetic nervous system; for example, in response to stress.

Adrenal Cortex

An endocrine organ that secretes steroid hormones for metabolic functions; for example, in response to stress.

Agonist

1.) A neurotransmitter, drug, or other molecule that stimulates receptors to produce a desired reaction. 2.) A muscle that moves a joint in an intended direction.

Alzheimer's Disease

A major cause of dementia in the elderly, this neurodegenerative disorder is characterized by the death of neurons in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and other brain regions. The earliest symptoms of the disease include forgetfulness; disorientation as to time or place; and difficulty with concentration, calculation, language, and judgment. In the final stages, individuals are incapable of self-care and may be bedridden.

Too much Beta Amyloid-neuron's connection block-neuron death

Amino Acid Transmitters

The most prevalent neurotransmitters in the brain, these include glutamate and aspartate, which have excitatory actions on nerve cells, and glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which have inhibitory actions on nerve cells.

Glutamate-turn on the brain

GABA-turn off the brain

Amygdala

A structure in the forebrain that is an important component of the limbic system and plays a central role in emotional learning, particularly within the context of fear.

most important: fear

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

This disease causes motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord to disintegrate, resulting in loss of control of voluntary muscle movements such as walking.

Lack of stimulation-disuse of muscle

Androgens

Sex steroid hormones, including testosterone, found in higher levels in males than females. They are responsible for male sexual maturation.

Antagonist

1. Drug or other chemical that blocks receptors. Inhibit the effects of agonists

2. A muscle that moves a joint in opposition to an intended direction

Aphasia

Disturbance in language comprehension or production, often as a result of a stroke.

Nonfluent-Good input, bad output (damage to frontal lobe)

Fluent-Good output, fairly bad input (damage to left temporal lobe)

Word deafness-can't here anything (damage to the superior temporal lobe

Apoptosis

Programmed Cell Death

This thing is activated if a neuron loses its battle with other neurons to receive life-sustaining chemical signals called trophic factors.

Auditory Nerve

A bundle of nerve fibers extending from the cochlea of the ear to the brain that contains two branches: the cochlear nerve, which transmits sound information, and the vestibular nerve, which relays information related to balance.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A condition characterized by excessively inattentive, hyperactive, or impulsive behaviors.

Reduction of catecholamine-weakened prefrontal lobe-less attention

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

A condition characterized by impaired social skills; verbal and nonverbal communication difficulties; and narrow, obsessive interests or repetitive behaviors.

Cause: dysregulation of the immune system & Abnormal and accelerated growth of the brain between 1 and 2 years old.

Autonomic Nervous System

A part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating the activity of internal organs. It includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

Axon

The fiberlike extension of a neuron by which it sends information to target cells

Basal Ganglia

Structures located deep in the brain that play an important role in the initiation of movements. These clusters of neurons include the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra. Cell death in the substantia nigra contributes to Parkinson's disease.

Bipolar Disorder

Previously known as manic-depressive illness, this disorder is characterized by episodes of deep depression and manic highs. The depressive episodes are similar to those experienced by people with depression. Symptoms of mania include increased energy, decreased need for sleep, a marked interest in goal-directed activities, and poor judgement.

Brainstem

The major route by which the forebrain sends information to and receives information from the spinal cord and peripheral nerves. This thing controls among other things, respiration and the regulation of heart rhythms.

Broca's Area

The brain region located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere that is important for the production of speech

Catecholamines

The neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, which are active in both the brain and the peripheral sympathetic nervous system. These three molecules have certain structural similarities and are part of a larger class of neurotransmitters known as monoamines.

Cell Body

The part a neuron that contains the nucleus

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain, associated with higher-order functioning including control of voluntary behavior, e.g. Thinking, planning, perceiving, understanding language.

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills. It is considered to control the coordination of movement by making connections to the pons, medulla, spinal cord, and thalamus.

Cerebral Cortex

A sheet of tissue covering the outermost layer of cerebrum, four lobes.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A liquid found within the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord.

Circadian Rhythm

A cycle of behavior or physiological change lasting approximately 24 hours.

Cochlea

A snail-shaped, fluid filled organ of the inner ear responsible for converting sound into electrical potentials to produce an auditory sensation.

Cognition

The process or processes by which an organism gains knowledge or becomes aware of events or objects in its environment and uses that knowledge for comprehension and problem-solving.

Cone

A primary receptor cell for vision located in the retina. It is sensitive to color and is used primarily for daytime vision.

Corpus Callosum

The large bundle of nerve fibers linking the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

Cortisol

A hormone manufactured by the adrenal cortex. In humans, this hormone is secreted in the greatest quantities before dawn, readying the body for the activities of the coming day.

Cranial Nerve

A nerve that carries sensory and motor output for the head and neck region. There are 12 cranial nerves.

Declarative Memory

The ability to learn and consciously remember everyday facts and events.

Depression

A psychiatric disorder characterized by sadness, hopelessness, pessimism, loss of interest in life, reduced emotional wellbeing, and abnormalities in sleep, appetite, and energy level.

Dendrite

A treelike extension of the neuron cell body. This thing is the primary site for receiving and integrating information from other neurons

Dopamine

A catecholamine neurotransmitter present in three circuits of the brain: one that regulates movement; a second thought to be important for cognition and emotion; and a third that regulates the endocrine system. Deficits of this neurotransmitter in the motor circuit are associated with Parkinson's disease. Abnormalities in the second circuit have been implicated in schizophrenia

Down Syndrome

A condition that typically occurs when, at the time of conception, an extra copy of chromosome 21 is present in the egg. This genetic anomaly is associated with physical and developmental characteristics, including mild to moderate intellectual disabilities; low muscle tone; and an increased risk of congenital heart defects, respiratory problems, and digestive tract obstruction.

Drug Addiction

Loss of control over drug intake or compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, despite adverse consequences.

Endocannabinoids

Lipid-derived messengers sometimes referred to as the brain's marijuana. These messengers control the release of neurotransmitters, usually by inhibiting them, and can affect the immune system and other cellular parameters. Endocannabinoids also play an important role in the control of behaviors.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A technology used to record electrical activity of the human brain in response to a variety of stimuli and activities.

Endocrine Gland

An organ that secretes a hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate cellular activity of certain other organs.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters produced in the brain that generate cellular and behavioral effects like those of morphine

Epilepsy

A disorder characterized by repeated seizures, which are caused by abnormal excitation of large groups of neurons in various brain regions. This disorder can be treated with many types of anticonvulsant medications.

Epinephrine

A hormone, released by the adrenal medulla and specialized sites in the brain. During times of stress, epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is quickly released into the bloodstream. It then serves to put the body into a general state of arousal, which enables it to cope with the challenge.

Estrogens

A group of sex hormones found more abundantly in females than males. They are responsible for female sexual maturation and other functions.

Excitation

A change in the electrical state of a neuron that is associated with an enhanced probability of action potentials.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone

A hormone released by the pituitary gland that stimulates the production of sperm in the male and growth of the follicle (which produces the egg) in the female.

Forebrain

The largest part of the brain, which includes the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia. This part of the brain is credited with the highest intellectual functions.

Fovea

The centermost part of the eye located in the center of the retina and contains only cone photoreceptors.

Frontal Lobe

One of the four subdivisions of the cerebral cortex. This lobe has a role in controlling movement and in the planning and coordinating of behavior.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A technology that uses magnetic fields to detect activity in the brain by monitoring blood flow

3D影响非常清晰，test blood flow and blood oxygen 比较实时，但是有延迟

Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

An amino acid transmitter in the brain whose primary function is to inhibit the firing of nerve cells.

Glia

Specialized cells that nourish and support neurons.

Glucocorticoids

Hormones that produce an array of effects in response to stress. Some of the actions of these hormones help mediate the stress response, while other, slower actions counteract the primary response to stress and help re-establish homeostasis.

Glutamate

An amino acid neurotransmitter that acts to excite neurons. Glutamate stimulates N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA). AMPA receptors have been implicated in activities ranging from learning and memory to development and specification of nerve contacts in developing animals. Stimulation of NMDA receptors may promote beneficial changes, whereas overstimulation may be a cause of nerve cell damage or death in neurological trauma and stroke.

Gonad

Primary sex gland: testis in the male and ovary in the female.

Gray Matter

Portions of the brain that are gray in color because they are composed mainly of neural cell bodies, rather than myelinated nerve fibers, which are white.

Growth Cone

A distinctive structure at the growing end of most axons. It is the site where new material is added to the axon.

Hair Cells

Sensory receptors in the cochlea that convert mechanical vibrations to electrical signals; they in turn excite the 30,000 fibers of the auditory nerve that carry the signals to the brainstem.

Hindbrain

The most posterior part of the brain comprises the pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum.

Hippocampus

A seahorse-shaped structure located within the brain and considered an important part of the limbic system. One of the most studied areas of the brain, it is involved in learning, memory, and emotion.

Homeostasis

The normal equilibrium of body function.

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands to regulate the activity of target cells. They play a role in sexual development, calcium and bone metabolism, growth, and many other activities

Huntington's Disease

A genetic disorder characterized by involuntary jerking movements of the limbs, torso, and facial muscles, often accompanied by mood swings, depression, irritability, slurred speech, and clumsiness

Basal ganglia出问题，过度dopamine

Hypothalamus

A complex brain structure composed of many nuclei with various functions, including regulating the activities of internal organs, monitoring information from the autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland, and regulating sleep and appetite.

Interneuron

A neuron that exclusively signals another neuron

Inhibition

A synaptic message that prevents a recipient neuron from firing.

Ions

Electrically charged atoms or molecules.

Ion Channels

Selectively permeable water-filled channels that pass through the cell membrane and allow ions or other small molecules to enter or leave the cell.

Long-Term Memory

The final phase of memory, in which information storage may last from hours to a lifetime.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A technique that uses magnetic fields to create a high-quality, three-dimensional image of organs and structures inside the body. This technology is noninvasive and does not expose the body to X-rays or other radiation.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)

Using the same machinery as MRI, MRS measures the concentration of certain chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, instead of blood flow

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A technique that can quantitatively measure the strength of activity in various regions of the brain at millisecond resolution.

Metabolism

The sum of all physical and chemical changes that take place within an organism and all energy transformations that occur within living cells.

Hindbrain

The most anterior segment of the brainstem. With the pons and medulla, this thing is involved in many functions, including regulation of heart rate, respiration, pain perception, and movement.

Migration

The process whereby new neurons find their proper position in the brain.

Mitochondria

Small cylindrical organelles inside cells that provide energy for the cell by converting sugar and oxygen into special energy molecules, called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Motor Neuron

A neuron that carries information from the central nervous system to muscle.

Motor Unit

A functional unit made up of an alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it contains and controls, ranging from a few to a hundred or more.

Mutations

Changes in DNA, such as "misspellings" in the gene sequence or incorrect amounts of DNA, that can prevent a gene from functioning properly.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

An autoimmune disease in which the body's natural defenses attack the myelin sheath covering the axons of neurons in the central nervous system. Symptoms include numbness, clumsiness, and blurred vision.

Myasthenia Gravis

A disease in which acetylcholine receptors on muscle cells are destroyed so that muscles can no longer respond to the acetylcholine signal to contract. Symptoms include muscular weakness and progressively more common bouts of fatigue. The disease's cause is unknown but is more common in females than in males; it usually strikes between the ages of 20 and 50.

Myelin Sheath

Compact fatty material that surrounds and insulates the axons of some neurons and accelerates the transmission of electrical signals.

NMDA Receptors

one of three major classes of glutamate receptors, which have been implicated in activities ranging from learning and memory to development and specification of nerve contacts in a developing animal.

Nerve Growth Factor

A substance whose role is to guide neuronal growth during embryonic development, especially in the peripheral nervous system. This substance also probably helps sustain neurons in the adult.

Nerve Terminal

The tip of the axon where neurotransmitters are released.

Neural Induction

The process during embryonic development whereby molecules trigger ectoderm tissue to become nerve tissue.

Neurogenesis

The production and growth of new nerve cells during development and, in select brain regions, throughout life.

Neuron

A nerve cell specialized for the transmission of information and characterized by long, fibrous projections called axons and shorter, branchlike projections called dendrites.

Neuroscientist

Scientists who specialize in the study of the brain and the nervous system

Neurotransmitter

A chemical released by neurons at a synapse for the purpose of relaying information to other neurons via receptors.

Nociceptors

In animals, nerve endings that signal the sensation of pain. In humans, they are called pain receptors.

Norepinephrine

A catecholamine neurotransmitter produced both in the brain and in the peripheral nervous system. This transmitter is involved in arousal and sleep regulation, mood, and blood pressure.

Occipital Lobe

One of the four subdivisions of the cerebral cortex. This lobe plays a role in processing visual information.

Olfactory Bulb

A round, knoblike structure of the brain responsible for processing the sense of smell. Specialized olfactory receptor cells are located in a small patch of mucous membrane lining the roof of the nose. Axons of these sensory cells pass through perforations in the overlying bone and enter two elongated olfactory bulbs lying on top of the bone.

Orexin Neurons

Specialized neurons that provide an excitatory signal to the arousal system, particularly to the norepinephrine neurons. Orexin activation plays a critical role in preventing abnormal transitions into REM sleep during the day, as occurs in narcolepsy