First Americans and European Colonization

Flashcards reviewing early human migration theories, hunter-gatherer culture, pre-Columbian agricultural societies, and major ancient Native American civilizations.

According to modern scientific estimates, how old is the Earth and when did modern humans emerge?

Scientists believe the Earth is 4.8 billion years old, and modern humans emerged 300,000 years ago.

How many major ice ages has Earth experienced, and what caused them?

Earth experienced 4 major ice ages caused by changes in the atmosphere and to Earth's axis.

What is Beringia, and how was it formed during the last ice age?

Beringia was a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska exposed when sea levels dropped during the last ice age.

According to the Beringia Theory, when did Asian hunters first enter Beringia and move deeper into North America?

Asian hunters first moved onto Beringia around 35,000 years ago and moved deeper into North America around 16,000 years ago.

When was an ice-free interior corridor/passageway opened from Canada to the Great Plains?

Around 13,000 years ago, after glaciers melted and opened mountain passes.

What is the main premise of the Kelp Highway Theory?

It states that the first humans in the Americas were seafaring peoples from Japan who followed dense kelp vegetation across the Pacific for food.

What discovery at Monte Verde, Chile supports the Kelp Highway Theory?

In 1975, archaeologists discovered human settlements dating back 14,500 years ago, predating the human crossing into the Great Plains from Canada.

What evidence undermines the Solutrean Hypothesis?

Genetic testing shows no DNA similarities between ancient Native Americans and Solutreans, and Solutreans died out 5,000 years prior to the tools found in America.

What was discovered in 2021 at White Sands National Park in New Mexico?

Ancient human footprints dated back 23,000 years ago, indicating human presence thousands of years earlier than previously thought.

What are the primary characteristics of early hunter-gatherer societies in the Americas?

They were nomads living in small family-based clans who moved in search of game and natural foods, with no written language and no permanent settlements.

What was the atlatl, and when was it replaced by the bow and arrow?

The atlatl was a lever spear-throwing device used starting 30,000 years ago to throw spears up to 100 yards; it was replaced by the bow and arrow around 2,000 years ago.

What was the estimated population of the Americas by 1492?

50-80 million people in the Americas, with 4-7 million living in the present-day United States across over 2,000 distinct societies.

When did the Agricultural Revolution begin in the Americas, and when did maize cultivation start?

The Agricultural Revolution began around 10,000 years ago, and indigenous Americans began cultivating maize (corn) in central Mexico around 6,000 years ago.

What was Cahokia, and what was its location and population at its peak?

Cahokia (800-1400 AD) was the largest Mound Building site, located in present-day Illinois with a population of 20,000.

What was Monks Mound?

The largest mound at Cahokia, covering 14 square acres and standing over 100 feet high, serving as the largest structure in the present-day U.S. for centuries.

What was Woodhenge at Cahokia used for?

It was a circular set of poles used by Cahokians as a celestial calendar to track the sun and equinoxes for accurate planting and harvesting.

Which modern Native American nations are descendants of the Cahokians?

The Osage, Omaha, Kansa, and other present-day nations.

What material did the ancient Pueblo use to construct multi-story settlements around 750 A.D.?

Stones and adobe mortar, which is a clay and sand mixture used as a binding agent and formed into bricks.

What were the key architectural and infrastructural features of Chaco Canyon (900-1150 AD)?

Buildings up to six stories high with hundreds of rooms aligned with solar/lunar patterns, connected to other settlements by over 180 miles of straight desert roads.

Which modern Native American groups trace their lineage back to the Chacoans?

The Hopi, Zuni, and other present-day Native American groups.