ACTUAL EXAM WEEK 8 NATURAL SCIENCE

Organic Chemistry Functional Groups, Reactions, and Biological Applications

Ethers

(R-O-R) are unreactive, used as solvents.

Epoxides

Three-membered cyclic ethers, highly reactive due to ring strain.

Acid-catalyzed ring opening

Epoxides react with nucleophiles.

Industrial Applications

Epoxy resins, coatings, and adhesives.

Thiols (-SH)

are sulfur analogs of alcohols.

Sulfides (R-S-R)

are sulfur analogs of ethers.

Thiols oxidize to form

disulfides (R-S-S-R), essential in protein folding.

Sulfides undergo SN2 reactions to form

sulfonium salts.

Carboxylic acids (R-COOH) are

polar, hydrogen bond donors.

Carboxylic acids (R-COOH) are acidic due to

resonance stabilization of carboxylate ion (R-COO⁻).

Carboxylic Acids Common Examples

Acetic acid (vinegar), Formic acid (ant venom), Butanoic acid (rancid butter)

Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution

Conversion into esters, amides, anhydrides.

Decarboxylation

Removal of CO₂ to form hydrocarbons.

Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

Describes carboxylate ion formation in buffers.

Esters (R-COO-R')

Formed by Fischer Esterification.

Esterification Reaction

Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water

Fischer Esterification

acid-catalyzed reaction

Amides (R-CONH₂)

Found in proteins, peptides, and drugs.

Amides (R-CONH₂) Reaction

Carboxylic Acid + Amine → Amide + Water

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

Esters, Amides, Anhydrides

Anhydrides (R-CO-O-CO-R)

More reactive than esters.

Anhydrides (R-CO-O-CO-R) formed by

dehydration of two carboxylic acids. Highly reactive in synthesis.

Nitriles are converted into

Carboxylic acids (hydrolysis) and Primary amines (LiAlH₄ reduction).

Nitriles: Carboxylic acids (hydrolysis) and Primary amines (LiAlH₄ reduction) Applicartions

Used in drug synthesis, polymers, and industrial chemistry.

Amines - Classification

Primary (R-NH₂), Secondary (R₂NH), Tertiary (R₃N).

Basicity

Amines accept protons due to their lone electron pair.

Common Amines

Dopamine (neurotransmitter) and Nicotine (alkaloid from tobacco).