Unit 1 - Institutions & Policy Processes

the budget and accounting act (1921)

federal law enacted in 1921 that established a framework for the budgeting process and formalized the role of the President in the budget formulation and execution: the president sends a buget to Congress for each fiscal year.

the office of management and budget

assists the President in preparing the federal budget and oversees its implementation: budget authority (amount agencies are allowed to spend), budget outline (amount expected to spend), and receipts (amount to take in through taxes).

budget enforcement act (BEA) (1990)

introduced mandatory spending for entitlements and discretionary spending: established caps on discretionary spending and created enforcement mechanisms: pay as you go system, any increase in entiltement spending means a decrease in discretionary spending.

balanced budget act of 1997

federal law that aimed to eliminate deficits by imposing budgetary discipline on Congress and set limits on spending and revenues, while also creating several health care initiatives such as the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), expired in 2002.

head of state

role the President performs through symbolic duties and represents national unity at home and abroad, distinct from political or policy-making roles.

chief executive

role the President assumes as the head of the executive branch, responsible for implementing and enforcing federal laws, and overseeing the administration of the government.

chief legislator

role the President plays in influencing legislation, including recommending laws, vetoing bills, and working with Congress to shape policy initiatives.

commander in chief

role the President plays as the supreme leader of the armed forces, responsible for military operations and national defense.

chief diplomat

role the President assumes in managing foreign relations, negotiating treaties, and representing the United States in international matters.

the power to declare war

belongs to Congress as outlined in Article Section 8: the president as commander in chief can direct military operations but only Congress has the constitutional authority to formally declare war.

independent regulatory commission

a type of government agency established to regulate specific economic activities and enforce laws to protect the public interest, often operating independently of the executive branch.

federal reserve board

the governing body of the Federal Reserve System, responsible for setting monetary policy, regulating banks, and supervising financial institutions.

Pendleton Act (1883)

federal law that established the principle of federal employment based on merit rather than political affiliation, leading to the creation of the Civil Service Commission.

Hatch Act (1939)

federal law aimed at limiting political activities of federal employees to ensure a nonpartisan civil service.

commerce clause

grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce, thus allowing federal regulation of economic activity across state lines.

equal protection clause

a section of the Fourteenth Amendment that guarantees all individuals equal protection under the law, prohibiting discrimination.

supremacy clause

the constitutional provision that federal law takes precedence over state law when there is a conflict.

establishment clause

a provision in the First Amendment that prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or unduly favoring one religion over another.

necessary and proper clause

grants Congress the authority to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers.

committee referral

the process by which a bill is sent to a committee for consideration, discussion, or amendment before being brought to the floor for a vote.

securities and exchange commission

a U.S. government agency responsible for regulating the securities industry, enforcing federal securities laws, and protecting investors.

writ of certiorari

a decree by which a higher court reviews a case from a lower court: discretionary tool used by the Supreme Court to choose which cases to hear.

selective incorporation

the legal doctrine that ensures the protections of the Bill of Rights apply to state governments through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause.

lemon test

a three-pronged test used by the Supreme Court to determine whether a law violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, focusing on purpose, effect, and entanglement with religion.

the southern strategy

political strategy employed by the Republican Party to gain the support of Southern voters by appealing to racial tensions and conservatism in the 1960s and beyond: giving rise to the modern Republican coalition in the South.

BCRA (McCain-Feingold Act)

federal law that regulated campaign financing by limiting soft money contributions and addressing issues related to political advertising.

Federalist No. 10

an essay by James Madison arguing that a large republic can mitigate the dangers of faction by diluting their influence across a wider electorate, thus promoting stability and democracy: warned that factions would undermine individual freedoms.

Federalist No. 51

an essay by James Madison that emphasizes the importance of checks and balances in government to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful, thereby protecting individual rights and promoting liberty.

single-member districts

electoral districts where one representative is elected per district, often used in a plurality voting system: only the candidate with most votes wins, which discourages votes for third-party candidates.

public interest groups

organizations that advocate for specific issues or interests, aiming to influence public policy and promote the common good for society as a whole, such as environmental protection.

cross-pressured voting

occurs when voters face conflicting influences from different affiliations or interests, leading to uncertainty in their electoral choices.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

legislation aimed at prohibiting anti-competitive practices and ensuring fair competition in business.

Shay’s rebellion

a 1786 armed uprising in Massachusetts by farmers protesting economic injustices and government policies, highlighting the need for a stronger national government.

weaknesses (of the articles of confederation)

difficulty in amending the document, conducting diplomacy, controlling trade between states, levying taxes, passing laws, raising an army, resolving disputes between states, representation of states, unicameral legislature, no executive or judicial.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

a provision in the Constitution requiring states to recognize and enforce the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states.