History of the World Since 1500s Final Exam

French Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Challenge of Modernity, Socialists and Radicals in Europe, World War 1

Estates-General

Louis XVI of France called for this meeting in 1789, which was the first time one had occurred since 1614. Each state sent representatives to speak. The 1st estate was the Catholic Church, the 2nd estate was the Nobility, and the 3rd estate was the peasants. The peasants made up 98% of the population and had to pay taxes, unlike the other estates. They wanted fundamental reforms and a representative legislative body.

Tennis Court Oath

Louis XVI locked the 3rd estate out of the assembly hall during the Estates General in 1789. The 3rd estate met on a tennis court instead and declared themselves the National Assembly. They made an oath not to disband until a constitutional monarchy was achieved. This marked the beginning of the French Revolution.

Storming of the Bastille

July 14, 1789. Louis XVI summoned 18,000 troops to defend his palace at Versailles after the National Assembly was formed. The commoners stormed the Bastille, killed the mayor, freed the 7 prisoners held there, armed themselves with weapons, and destroyed the Bastille. Resulted in Louis compromising with them and granting equality before the law, no serfdom, no feudal obligations, and no special prerogatives of nobility.

March of the Women

Fall 1789. Poor French peasants were angry about the price of bread, so 20,000 of them, mostly women, marched to Versailles. They forced King Louis XVI and his family to leave Versailles and return to Paris, where the peasants could keep a closer eye on them.

Marie Antoinette

Wife of Louis XVI. Spent a lot of money on extravagant fashion, gambling, and plays, which got a lot of scorn. Nicknamed “Madame Deficit”. Ridiculed for not producing an heir (she had a baby, but it was a girl). Was imprisoned when Jacobins took over and accused of treason and incest. Beheaded by guillotine in October 1793.

Jacobins

a radical faction of the republic that took over after Louis XVI was beheaded. Led by Maximilien Robespierre. Had ideas of perfect equality. Confiscated land owned by church and nobility and redistributed it to everyone. Abolished slavery. Everyone was referred to as “citizen” to promote equality. Created new calendar in 1793. Had Reign of Terror because their Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands of people who were accused of not supporting the Jacobins. Created an army of conscripted soldiers that increased sense of national identity.

Maximilien Robespierre

Leader of the Jacobins and their Reign of Terror. Influenced by Jean-Jacque Rousseau’s ideas of democracy. Convinced people to put their liberty on hold to protect the revolution after the king of Prussia and Austria declared war on France, turning France into a dictatorship. Was shot in the jaw and beheaded when internal conflict in France worsened and Jacobins started fighting each other.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French military leader that grew in popularity after taking control of northern Italy. Restored power of the Catholic Church and crowned himself emperor in 1804. Sponsored the creation of the bank of France, enforces use of the metric system to streamline trade, and reinforces ideas of French nationalism/glory. While in power, he invaded multiple countries in Europe, including the Netherlands, Poland, Germany, and Russia. Was exiled twice - escaped from first exile on island of Elba, died during second exile on island of St. Helena. He inspired nationalism and revolts among many of the nations he had invaded.

Saint Domingue

French colonial island (now Haiti) in the Caribbean that produced sugar through slave labor. Became very wealthy from sugar trade. Natives treated poorly by the French and had very poor working conditions. Revolted against the French in 1971 after hearing about the fight for freedom during French Revolution. Larger revolts after death of Toussaint Louverture lead to declaration of Haiti as independent from French rule.

Toussaint Louverture

free Haitian that became military commander after Haitian revolt in Saint Domingue. Joined the French and helped them drive back British and Spanish invaders. Issued reforms in 1800 that freed slaves but still required them to work at sugar plantations for wages. Captured by Napoleon and died in jail in 1803. After his death, Hatians united against French and drove them out of Haiti, gaining independence.

Water Frame

a spinning machine invented by Richard Arkwright in 1765. Powered by water, needed large specialized mills, could have up to 1000 workers. By 1790, it and the Cotton Jenny (made by James Hargreaves) produced 10x as much yarn as was produced in the 1770s. Cotton spinning exclusively done in factories instead of in homes after this point.

James Watt

Lived 1736-1819. Added a separate condenser to Thomas Newcombe’s primitive steam engine in 1736 that increased efficiency. Worked with Matthew Boulton in 1775, who had financial resources and sale skills that made the steam engine very successful. Gave humans nearly unlimited power, helped growth of Industrial Revolution. Led to radical changes in iron industry that increased iron production, made iron cheaper, and led to it becoming important building material.

Stephenson’s Rocket

Locomotive built by George Stephenson in 1825. Went down new Liverpool and Manchester railroad in 1830. Could go 16 mph. Many other railroads built after its success. Led to reduced cost and uncertainty of shipping goods over land, strong demand for unskilled labor, and growth of class of urban workers.

Thomas Malthus

Lived 1776-1834. Argued that the population would always grow faster than the food supply. Said there needed to be “prudent restraint” to ward off “positive checks on population growth” such as war, famine, and disease.

Luddites

group of handicraft workers in Britain that protested the Industrial Revolution and destruction of rural life. They smashed new machines in factories that they thought were putting them out of work.

Factory Act of 1833

Limited the workday for children ages 9-13 to 8 hours/day and kids ages 14-18 to 12 hours/day. Created after Robert Owen, a Scottish manufacturer, testified in 1816 that employing children under 10 years old in factories was harmful to children and production.

Fukuzawa Yukichi

Lived 1835-1901. Part of first delegation sent from Japan to U.S. in 1859. Arrived at San Francisco and was amazed at what he saw. Was surprised Americans didn’t honor family of George Washington. Thought Japan didn’t know much about American culture and vice versa. Dedicated himself to “Dutch learning” (western knowledge). His philosophy emphasized science and independence over tradition and subservience. Founded Keio Academy/University. Had impact on Meiji Restoration and considered a founder of modern Japan.

Opium Wars

• Cause: British smuggled opium from India to China, where it was illegal. Addiction became problematic and created tension between Britain and China. China started killing British smugglers and refused to have free trade.

• First war: 1839-1842. British blockaded Chinese coast with gunboats and bombed coastal cities. Prepared to attack Nanjing, so China accepted British terms.

• Second war: 1856-1850. British and French burn palaces and occupy Beijing. China agrees to open more ports for Western trade. Agreed to make international settlements in Chinese cities that only Europeans could live in.

Treaty of Nanjing

Treaty between China and Britain in 1842 that ended the first Opium War. Signed after British sailed up Yangtze River and prepared to attack Nanjing. China accepted British terms. Opened 5 ports with unrestricted foreign trade and British law. Gave possession of Hong Kong to British.

Boxer Rebellion

Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists also called the Boxers because of their emphasis on martial arts. Strongly anti-foreign group that attacked missionaries and Chinese Christians in 1898. Empress Ci Xi sided with them. Resulted in 20,000 troops from 12 different countries marching to Beijing in 1900 and forcing Qing empire to pay 450 million oz of silver. Chinese revolution occurs soon after.

Satsuma Rebellion

After Meiji Restoration. 42,000 Samurai rebelled against new reforms in 1877. They did not like the westernization of Japan and the lack of distinction between themselves and commoners. Led by Saigo Takamori, who disemboweled himself when the battle turned against his men. He was seen as a hero by conservatives. Was end of Samurai class.

Russo-Japanese War

1904, Japanese fleet led by admiral Heihachiro Togo carry out a surprise attack on Russian navy at port Arthur before war had been declared. After this and their conquering of Korea (which had been controlled by China) during the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, Japan became counted among the greatest powers in the world. More tension built in St. Petersburg in Russia, which led to Bolshevik revolution and Russian communism. Also inspired wave of nationalism across Asia.

Partition of Bengal

1905, British decided to split India in two. This angered Indian nationalists because it was seen as an attempt to divide and conquer India. Separates India (Hindu) from Pakistan (Muslim). Creates a lot of conflict between the two. Gandhi led a rebellion a year later and became a symbol of new India. Later leads to Indian independence.

Mfecane Movement

Series of political revolts in Africa in the early 1800s. Translates to “the crushing”. Bantu people banded together and shared resources due to droughts, which led to the creation of new “states”. Zulu Empire of Shaka formed and expanded during this time. Conflicts between Xhosha people and British colonists. Zulu king Cetshwayo and his army fight British and win at Battle of Isandhlwana, but are later defeated by British. Clashes between British and Boers over towns and railroads leads to creation of apartheid system. Other rebellions also.

Shaka Zulu

Shaka was son of a minor African chief and a large, violent man that used terror to discipline his subjects and scare his rivals. He formed a standing army of around 40,000 soldiers from different clans and prioritized loyalty to himself and Zulu people. Organized young women into agricultural regiments. Would kill anyone who opposed him, including 7,000 people who didn’t mourn his dead mother enough. Created a powerful warrior state. Led to shift from small clans to large clans and centralized power.

Xhosa Cattle Killing

Xhosa people in Africa lost grazing land to British colonists. Nongqawuse said spirits told her if Xhosa slaughtered their remaining cattle, the ancestors would return, evil would be purged from the land, and new cattle herds would come from the ground. In 1856-57, they killed all their cattle and 100,000 Africans died.

Charles Fourier

Lived from 1772-1832. French philosopher that came up with utopian socialist system in 1808. Wanted to reorganize humanity into phalanxes of 1500-1600 people with 810 personality types. Thought it would improve diversity and efficiency and make life more enjoyable. Wanted everyone to work different tasks for 2 hours at a time and to improve working conditions. Less desirable jobs would pay more and would primarily be done by children. Men had to grow what they wanted to eat and learn what they wanted to learn.

Karl Marx

Lived 1818-1883. German philosopher that was the most important radical thinker of the restoration era. Graduated from University of Berlin. Started out as a journalist. He and Friedrich Engels published the Communist Manifesto.

Communist Manifesto

Written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Developing scientific socialism. Argued that the interests of the middle class and the working class were opposed to each other. Thought working class would keep getting poorer and larger, and class consciousness would lead to a violent revolution. Though bourgeoise would be put down and proletarian dictatorship would take over. Wanted to put end to private property. Thought it would lead to new world marked by equality.

Stalin

Real name is Iosif Dzhugashvili. “Stalin” derived from Russian word for steel. Took over after Lenin and sent opponent Leon Trostsky into exile. Creates a series of 5 year plans to transform Russia into an industrial power. Wanted to nationalize economy and industry, abolish private property in favor of collectivism, and merge farms into larger state-owned farms. Kulak people resisted this by killing livestock and burning crops, so Stalin sends Secret Police to kill them and ship them to Siberia. He kills around 13 million people while in power and 10 million more died from famine. Made big improvements in science, technology, and jobs, Set up dictatorship of complete and permanent control.

Otto Von Bismarck

Chancellor of Germany in early 1870s. Said Germany wanted peace. Wanted France to be diplomatically isolated so they could not attack Germany. Negotiated defensive alliance with Russia and Austria-Hungary to try to keep peace and isolate France at the same time. Was dismissed by William II in 1890, which led to loss of alliance with Russia, formation of alliance between France and Russia, strained relationships, and the division of Europe into 2 sections.

Alsace-Lorraine

A strip of land between Germany and France that Germany took during the Franko-Prussian War. Created tension between the two countries. Was later given back to France after WW1.

Triple Alliance

Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. Formed after William II ended alliance with Russia and instead allied with Italy. Lost WWI.

Triple Entente

Russia, France, and Britain. Britain did not like Germany because of competition for trade partners and their large navy. Germany was not happy about British-French alliance. Germany says Morocco is independent instead of a British colony and demands fair trade. Britain thinks Germany is stirring up trouble and Germany thinks Britain is plotting to encircle them. Leads to Anglo-Russian Agreement in 1907.

Franz Ferdinand

Archduke of Austria-Hungary. Visited Sarajevo in Bosnia on June 28, 1914. He was riding around in an open-roofed car in a motorcade. A bomb was thrown into his car, but he threw it back out. His driver took a wrong turn while on their escape route, which led to his death. Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old member of the Black Hand, shot Franz and his wife Sophie. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination and declared war on July 28. Germany supports them and invades Belgium. Russia and Britain declare war on Germany. WWI begins.

Black Hand

A radical Bosnian group that plotted the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. A dozen men were stationed around Sarajevo to try to kill him. Gavrilo Princip succeeds. Austria-Hungary believed they were armed by Serbian government because Serbians were angry that they had been annexed into Austria-Hungary. Serbia was blamed for assassination and this led to war.

Schlieffan Plan

German plan for a 2-front war. Planned for quick victory over France by going through neutral Belgium in a surprise attack. Planned to attack Russia afterwards.

Total War

A global war where everything changed. Governments had unprecedented levels of power. European powers were fighting and colonial people got caught in the war. Europeans were naïve and thought war would be quick and decisive, did not know how horrible it would be. Shell shock (PTSD) becomes a new concept and many soldiers were looked down upon for this. Trench warfare, gorilla warfare tactics, and new weapons (machine guns, mustard gas, etc.) were used. Tons of people died. Decrease in international trade and shift to production of war materials made consumer goods scarce. European government and society transformed. Corporations and state became more closely connected, unions and right to strike were lost, freedom of speech and assembly restricted, women able to get more jobs, nursing profession expanded.

Battle of Verdun

1916. Half a million people died. Battle between France and Germany. Not much progress was made on either side. Trench warfare was used, along with machine guns, mustard gas, and bombs.

T.E. Lawrence

Lawrence of Arabia. British archeologist and soldier that had good knowledge of Arabic language and culture. Formed alliances with Arab leaders. Innovated gorilla warfare tactics such as dynamiting railroads in the Ottoman Empire.

Lusitania

A passenger ship from the U.S. that was sunk by German U-boats in 1915. Was portrayed as simple passenger ship carrying a lot of American citizens, but later revealed that it was also carrying weapons to Britain. Woodrow Wilson protests and Germany agrees to stop attacking ships without warning. When Germany starts attacking ships again, President Wilson asks Congress to declare war. United States joins the war in 1917 and turns war in Britain and France’s favor.

Treaty of Versailles

Created during the Paris Peace Conference (Jan 1919 - Jan 1920). Did not meet all of Woodrow Wilson’s 14-point plan to establish free trade and self-determination of countries. Georges Clemencaeau of France wanted to punish Germany. Made them take responsibility for the war, pay reparations, and restrict their military. Led to formation of League of Nations.