Social Physics & Social Facts

Who was Auguste Comte?

Founder of positivism, philosopher of science, coined the term sociology ("sociologie"), and believed society could be studied scientifically like the natural sciences.

What is sociology?

The systematic study of society, social relationships, social institutions, and social behaviour.

What does the word sociology mean?

It comes from the Latin "socius" (associate/social) and the Greek-derived suffix "-logie" (study of).

What is positivism?

The belief that knowledge should be based on observation, evidence, scientific methods, and logic rather than religion or speculation.

Why did Comte believe sociology should resemble the natural sciences?

Because sciences are cumulative—each discipline builds on previous discoveries and methods from other sciences.

What is Social Physics?

Comte's original name for sociology; the scientific study of society to discover natural social laws.

What are social laws according to Comte?

General patterns that consistently explain social behaviour and social change.

What is Comte's Law of Three Stages?

A theory stating that human thought develops through the Theological, Metaphysical, and Positive stages.

What is the Theological Stage?

The stage where events are explained through supernatural beings or gods.

Example of the Theological Stage

Rain occurs because a rain god causes it.

What is the Metaphysical Stage?

The stage where supernatural beings are replaced by abstract forces such as nature or destiny.

Example of the Metaphysical Stage

Explaining events through vague forces like "nature" or "destiny" instead of gods.

What is the Positive Stage?

The stage where the world is understood through observation, scientific evidence, logic, and natural laws.

Which stage does Comte believe sociology belongs to?

The Positive Stage.

Why is Comte important to sociology?

He argued that society follows discoverable laws and should be studied scientifically.

Why is explaining social change important in sociology?

Understanding why societies change or remain stable is one of sociology's central goals.

What is determinism?

The belief that every event is completely caused by previous events and the laws of nature.

According to determinism, what would be true about history?

The entire history of the universe would have been fixed from the moment of the Big Bang.

What is agency?

The ability of individuals to make choices that influence future outcomes.

How does agency differ from determinism?

Agency argues people make meaningful choices, while determinism argues events are predetermined.

Why is Karl Marx mentioned in this lecture?

He predicted socialism would inevitably replace capitalism, but this deterministic prediction did not come true.

Why are deterministic theories often criticized?

Because society is influenced by many interacting causes and is not perfectly predictable.

What type of predictions do sociologists usually make today?

Conditional and probabilistic predictions rather than absolute predictions.

What is a conditional prediction?

If one condition occurs, another outcome is more likely.

What is a probabilistic prediction?

A prediction that something is likely rather than certain to happen.

Example of a probabilistic prediction

If your parents are poor, you are more likely to be poor.

What does "underdetermined causes" mean?

Many different causes can produce the same social outcome.

Example of multiple causes of social change

A government passes a law, and people may protest, lobby politicians, or write letters to change it.

What is epistemology?

The study of knowledge, belief, and how we know what we know.

What does "episteme" mean?

Knowledge or understanding.

What does "logos" mean?

Reason, explanation, argument, or account.

What question did Plato ask in epistemology?

What does it mean to truly know something?

What does modern epistemology study?

How evidence shapes our confidence in beliefs and influences our actions.

What is feminist epistemology?

The study of how social position and identity influence knowledge.

Who was Dorothy Smith?

A feminist sociologist who argued that people's everyday experiences shape how they understand society.

According to Dorothy Smith, what influences knowledge?

History, everyday experiences, social position, values, and relationships.

What is empirical evidence?

Knowledge gained through observation, measurement, experiments, and experience.

What is introspection?

Knowledge gained by examining your own thoughts and feelings.

What is memory as a source of knowledge?

Knowledge based on recalling previous experiences, although memory can be unreliable.

What is reason as a source of knowledge?

Knowledge based on logic rather than observation.

Example of knowledge gained through reason

"All bachelors are unmarried."

What is testimony as a source of knowledge?

Knowledge obtained from what other people say or write, such as books, teachers, or media.

Which source of knowledge is most important in scientific sociology?

Empirical evidence.

Who was Émile Durkheim?

One of sociology's founding thinkers who argued that society should be studied scientifically.

Why did Durkheim believe logic alone is insufficient?

Because understanding society requires observation and empirical evidence.

What is Durkheim's major claim about society?

Society is more than the sum of individuals because collective forces influence behaviour.

What are social facts?

Collective beliefs, values, norms, and practices that exist outside individuals and shape behaviour.

Why are social facts external?

They exist before individuals are born and continue after individuals die.

Why are social facts coercive?

They pressure individuals to conform through rewards, punishments, and social expectations.

Examples of social facts

Religion, family, education, government, language, money, property rights, punishment.

What is coercive power?

The ability of social institutions to influence behaviour through social control.

Example of coercive power

Dropping out of high school often results in stigma, shame, and fewer opportunities.

Can social facts change?

Yes. They evolve over time and may become stronger or weaker.

According to Durkheim, what produces social change?

Changes in social interaction, population, technology, and material conditions.

What do sociologists study?

Social groups, social institutions, social processes, social change, and social inequality.

Examples of social groups

Class, race, ethnicity, gender, and age.

Examples of social institutions

Family, education, religion, government, economy, healthcare, media, and law.

What are social processes?

Repeated patterns of social interaction and behaviour.

Examples of social processes

Cooperation, competition, conflict, domination, socialization, and assimilation.

What is social inequality?

Unequal access to power, wealth, status, and opportunities.

What are the three main goals of sociological research?

Describe, explain, and predict.

What question does descriptive research answer?

What happened or what is happening?

What question does explanatory research answer?

Why did it happen?

What question does predictive research answer?

What is likely to happen next and why?

What is deduction?

A method of reasoning that starts with a theory and makes a specific prediction.

Example of deduction

A theory predicts that students with stable housing will earn higher grades, so School A is expected to outperform School B.

What is induction?

A method of reasoning that starts with observations and develops a general theory.

Example of induction

Researchers observe that well-funded schools have better outcomes and conclude that funding is generally connected to success.

What is abduction?

A method of reasoning that starts with an observation and proposes the most likely explanation.

Example of abduction

A poorly funded school has low attendance and test scores, so the most likely explanation is limited resources.

Deduction vs Induction

Deduction moves from theory to prediction, while induction moves from observations to theory.

Deduction vs Abduction

Deduction tests an existing theory, while abduction generates the most likely explanation.

Induction vs Abduction

Induction builds general theories, while abduction explains a specific observation.

Memory trick for deduction

Deduction = Down (general theory → specific prediction).

Memory trick for induction

Induction = Up (specific observations → general theory).

Memory trick for abduction

Abduction = Best Guess (most likely explanation).

Who are the two major sociologists discussed in this lecture?

Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim.

What are the five sources of knowledge?

Empirical evidence, introspection, memory, reason, and testimony.

What are the three stages of Comte's theory?

Theological, Metaphysical, and Positive.

What are the three goals of sociology?

Describe, explain, and predict.

What are the three methods of reasoning?

Deduction, induction, and abduction.