(Topic 4) Challenges to, and the fall of, the Fascist State (1935-46)

Mussolini’s Foreign Policy Aims:

From 1919, he had placed foreign policy high on his agenda, believing that Italy would become great if it had an empire to rival Western powers → he developed 4 broad aims…

• ‘Empire of Greatness:’ to strengthen Italys control over Western powers, African colonies & strengthen control over Libya (pacified in 1911)

• Prestige of Italy: to be increased as a reaction to the ‘mutilated victory’ → include reclaiming old&new land (lost to Yugoslavia in 1919)

• Autarky: new colonies would make Italy rich in natural resources & manpower

• Influence over the Mediterranean: the Mediterranean Sea would become an ‘Italian Lake’

= can be divided:

1922-35: (fascist period) diplomacy used to gradually enhance Italy’s prestige & maintain good relations with Britain&France

1935-40: marked by a distinct change in policy direction → Mussolini sought to build an empire through force & aggression (ultimately led to downfall from 1943)

Impact of Foreign Policy- Successes & Failures (pre 1934):

Mussolini believed that Italy was treated badly in 1919 Peace Conference & had a legitimate claim on land (claiming Italy was a ‘Prisoner in the Mediterranean- encircled by allied military forces). In 1922, Italy had little influence in international issues (Brit&France were still main powers)→ denouncing them as ‘parasites’ (Theory of Encirclement) & wanting to destroy Brit Empire. He was in constant search for new allies- BUT, had to maintain secure relations with Brit&France → signing multiple treaties that didn’t bring anything to Italy.

Before attempts of peaceful settlements, he did threaten an aggressive act in 1923 → The Corfu Crisis:

• Mussolini sought revenge after an Italian Official murdered on the borders of Greece/Albania (part of League of Nations mission to establish borders). He demanded an official apology & 50mn Lire

• The Greek Gov refused → Mussolini went to seize the island of Corfu, arguing the dispute had nothing to do with the League (since the Official was not formally working under its direction but as a direct from Mussolini)

• After negotiations, Britain agreed to Mussolini’s demand that the dispute needed to be settled by the Conference of Ambassadors (Italy, Britain, France, Japan- aimed to settle territorial disputes post WWI) RATHER than the League of Nations itself → demonstrated Italy needing to work with & not against EU powers

• Mussolini received 50mn & withdrew under increasing international pressure

Fiume:

• wanted to win back Italian speaking Fiume (inspired by D’Annunzio-1919) → peaceful approach

• Persuaded Yugoslavia to sign the Treaty of Rome (1924) → Italy received Fiume

• Mussolini received prestige at home & abroad → gave him confidence to push into the Balkans

The Balkans (1924-29):

• French had a dominant position in Yugoslavia & Mussolini was keen to show Italy as a dominant power in the Balkans

• 1924: Italian sponsored Zog seized power of Albania → Fascist regime supplied him with money & encouraged Italian companies to invest in Albanian economy. Italian officers were used to train/advise Albanian Army

• 1926: Treaty of Friendship signed- effectively made Albania a satellite state & under direct influence of Rome

• Mussolini’s power & influence in the region persuaded rival Yugoslavia that they shouldn’t antagonise Italy (was invaded by Fascists during WWII)

Relations with Britain & France:

• 1925-6: Mussolini signed the Locarno Treaties- confirmed Western Germanys borders couldn’t be changed BUT allowed eastern borders to be up for further debate

• 1928: Mussolini entered the Kellogg-Briand Pact (signed by 62 countries)- promised to outlaw war as a method of settling international disputes & reached agreements on African Borders

However… Mussolini was little interested in the contents of the treaties/pacts signed & tended to dismiss them- was often absent from many proceedings. Yet, he saw the advantage of working alongside Western powers, being taken seriously (propaganda exercise) & winning trust of France & Britain

• With Brit&France on his side, he was determined to revise the peace settlement in revenge for the mutilated victory. → sought alliances with other EU nations

• 1927: Signed Friendship Pact with Hungary to help fund right wing groups in Germany in hopes a pro-fascist gov would come into force (to act as a counter balance)

• Began shifting towards military conquests → declaring in 1927 that he would make an air force large enough to ‘blot out the sun’ (disregarding the K-B Pact)

• Post 1933: relations with Germany were tense (Hitler’s appointment) → Mussolini called for a ‘Four Power Conference’ following Germanys withdrawal from the League of Nations. Mussolini was concerned Hitler may annex Austria & encouraged Austrian chancellor to clamp down on Austrian Nazis. Mussolini feared an invasion → sent 40,000 troops to Northern border of Italy (Austria)

The Stresa Front (1935):

• (Final declaration of the Stresa Conference) Germany announced rearmament/expansion of armed forces (rebellion against Treaty of Versailles), a meeting was called with Brit, France & Italy to discuss an alliance to oppose any future German aggression in Austria.

• 3 powers agreed to remain united against Germany, re-affirmed Locarno treaties

= was a vague division between powers, Britain undermined the alliance when they signed the Anglo-Naval Agreement

Foreign Policy (1935-40)- Invasion of Abyssinia:

(Abyssinia=modern day Ethiopia)

Mussolini made clear that in return of assisting peace in Europe, he required an empire in Africa (wanting to acquire Abyssinia) for 3 reasons…

1) compete with EU powers in Africa

2) spread the Fascist message further & create a holiday destination for Italians

3) get revenge for the humiliating Battle of Adowa (1896) - Italians were defeated by Ethiopians

Brit & France tended to turn a blind eye from Mussolini’s ambitions in Africa- as long as he helped them in German negotiations. → Mussolini set intention on Ethiopia (hadn’t been claimed, a member of the League & had signed a friendship pact in 1928)

• 1930: Italians constructed a fort at Walwal (border of Ethiopia&Italy) → 1934: a minor military confrontation (107 Ethiopians & 50 Italians killed) - Mussolini used this as a pretext for a full scale war which broke out October 1935

• 1935: Mussolini launched invasion with 400,000 troops (more than needed as hoped for a quick victory)

• Hoale Naval Pact 1935: stated that Italy could retain power of Ethiopia but as a smaller independent nation → Mussolini used allies as a propaganda coup, portraying him as a leader prepared to defend Italy from limitations of power

• May 1936: captured → able to declare a Fascist Empire had been created (selling the victory as a pinnacle of fascist success)

Consequences:

Although it helped end Anglo-French dominance in region & Brit/France were torn between obligations to prevent war & preventing Mussolini from becoming hostile to them (not wanting to push hm towards Nazi Germany)

• Mussolini’s tactics were criticised by EU Powers → international prestige lowered

• 250,000+ Ethiopians killed (Italy was the 1st Nation to utilise chemical weapons against the local population=bad reputation of brutality)

• Ethiopia failed to attract millions potential emigrants (like Mussolini had expected) & administering & policing became a considerable drain of Italian treasury

• Economically costly: decrease of Lire value & African trade

Foreign Policy (1935-40)- The Spanish Civil War:

Mussolini saw the Spanish civil war as an opportunity to display the growing power of Italy/fascism, alongside not wanting to seem subservient to Hitler

• Provided General Franco (fascist) with men, weapons, aircraft, tanks

• Seen as a Right v Left battle: France & Soviet Union assisting socialist gov - Germany & Italy assisting Fascists

Consequences:

• Francos forces won the war → increased Mussolini’s prestige among certain groups & bought him & Hitler closer together

• Length of war: many Italians died

• Much of the equipment landed never returned to Italy (held back Mussolini’s dive towards rearmament)

• Disrupted the economy (which was simultaneously trying to cope with Abyssinian conflict) → seen as an unnecessary endeavour

The Breakdown of the Stresa Front & the move towards Germany:

• 1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement: the Stresa Front completely collapsed, after Italy invaded Abyssinia

• 1936 Spanish Civil War: Mussolini’s peak hatred of democracy → fallen out of favour with Brit&France (Mussolini now had a potential ally in Spain)

• 1936 Rome-Berlin Axis: post invasion of Ethiopia & Spanish Civil War, Mussolini realised an alliance would benefit both countries. It was vague on terms but Mussolini now supported Germanys claim in Eastern Europe whilst Germany supported Mussolini’s claim to the Mediterranean

• 1938 German Anschluss with Austria: Mussolini knew he couldn’t prevent Germany from taking Austria → Anschluss led him to lose some popularity in Italy & weaken partnership between Germany & Italy.

Italy had moved closer to Germany for several reasons: worsening relations between Italy & France/Brit, from 1936, the economy was becoming more dependent on Germany, Mussolini was impressed by Hitlers progress in Germany → led to 1937 Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany/Japan

• 1938 The Sudetenland Crisis: Mussolini saw another opportunity as an international statesman, recommended a conference to secure an agreement over the Sudetenland (also confirming a futuristic EU dominated by Germany)

• 1939 The Pact of Steel: the axis was to be reinforced with the pact. Mussolini had remained silent as Hitler annexed Austria & Germanys occupation of Czechoslovakia made him envious of German success → in order to compete, Mussolini decided he needed a likewise gesture & invaded Albania in April. → Pact agreed later, promising to follow each other to war if the other started.

• Ciano was confident that war wouldn’t be declared until at least 1942 → it was accepted that Italy needed more time to gain back strength after Ethiopia & Spain

Italian Neutrality (1939-40):

• By August, it was clear that Hitler was ready to invade Poland & starting another war

• Mussolini wanted Italy to launch attacks on Germanys enemies immediately, but Ciano & the king reminded him they were ready for war → he informed Hitler he wouldn’t be able to fulfil the promises of the Pact

  • Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 1939: secret agreement between Germany & Soviet Union to invade & divide Poland- avoiding war for another 10 years as Italy prepared

Domestic Tensions for Mussolini:

• Autarky: increased military spending = more expensive consumer products

• Battle for Grain: worsening diet, poor living standards

• Transfer of Italian workers to Germany: workers were treated poorly in Germany & contradicted his policies of keeping Italians in Italy

• Anschluss brought fear & anger towards people

• Anti-Semitic Policies & a ‘Reform of Customs:’ unpopular

• Cult of Il Duce: Mussolini was now in his 50s, the image of a young dynamic dictator became hard to sustain

• Fear that the regime was leading Italy to trouble

However…

• He was still popular, even if the PNF wasnt

• Many Italians who had grown p with Mussolini as leader knew no different/alternatives

Joining World War II:

Became frustrated with neutrality → entered war 10 June 1940 (saw German successes on Western Front)

• Ideology: wanted to glorify Italy/Fascism with war & violence- believed war was essential to harden Italian people

• Cult of Il Duce: had to follow own propaganda of greatness & couldnt back down

• Fear: afraid of what would go wrong- feared losing popularity if he missed out on winning a war & if he joined the war but lost. Feared how powerful Nazi Germany would become if Hitler won alone

• Greed: an opportunist & had territorial demands

• Italian People: not enthusiastic for war (foreign minister Ciano believing they weren’t ready- dissent from closest advisors)

= Mussolini hoped the war would be over quickly before weaknesses of their war economy & military became apparent

Disaster in Greece:

• Mussolini wanted to invade Greece & use it as a base/ compete with Germanys advances in Northern Europe → issued an ultimatum with Greece but was rejected

• Italy invaded and was rebuffed → Mussolini didnt coordinate invasion with navy/airforce, weather was poor, Greek forces were superior to Italian forces.

• German troops were brought in to pacify Greece → humiliating for Italy & now very reliant on Hitler (Germany viewing Italians with disgust)

Invasion of Egypt:

• 130,000 Italian troops captured by Britain

• June 1941: vast majority of Italian territory in North Africa had been lost

  = only under German forces was it possible for Italy to continue until 1943

The War Economy:

Italys defeat can be traced to the state of the economy at the outbreak of war…

• Spanish civil war & Ethiopia invasion had cost extensive amounts & industry was close to collapse (Hadn’t been given aircraft/weapons back from Spain either)

• Economic turmoil: rationing, food & clothing shortages

• Allied bombings led to unrest

• Mass evacuations: unorganised & further damaged morale (fascist propaganda failed to motivate population to support the war effort)

• Domestic production never exceeded 25%

• Dependent on Germany for coal&fuel

• Steel production fell → 1942: better production system achieved but destroyed by allied bombing

Military Weaknesses & Mussolini:

• No system of meritocracy within army (longest serving soldiers were offered promotions rather than most talented)

• Minimal communication between branches of military (Mussolini was supreme leader of all) → each branch remained jealous of the others & was unwilling to share information

• Army were poorly equipped (enough to arm ½ of the units) & levels of training was far below those of other nations

• Machinery & technology was suited for WWI- hadn’t modernised like he other nations involved, BUT didnt have the £ to produce better

Mussolini:

• no understanding of military strategy

• Interested in presentation over tactics

• Insisted his involvement in commands etc → led to unrealistic/ill formed decisions

Political tensions during the war:

From 1942, disillusionment & opposition grew…

• Protests: anti-fascist demonstrations & strikes (1945: 100,000 workers striked in protest of working conditions & pay)

• Decline in living standards → Socialists & Catholics took opportunity to attract power

• Returning soldiers with TB brought news on conditions, loss of 200,000 at Stalingrad

• People were opposing brutal methods by German troops in Greece & Yugoslavia

• Invasion of Sicily 1943: people were convinced that Italy had lost the war, wanted to abandon German alliance, remove Mussolini from power & reach a peace treaty with allies

Allied Invasion of Sicily & the Removal of Mussolini:

10 July 1943: allied forces invaded Sicily in hopes to collapse the Fascist state → a force of 80,000 men, 300 tanks, aircraft etc

Operation Mincemeat:

• British deception → rumours of the invasion to be aimed at Sardinia & Greece

• Germany & Italy taken by surprise (despite Mussolini believing the invasion was for Sicily but Hitler overruled him)

• Axis powers defended Sicily & Southern Italy but were outmanoeuvred → Axis forces evacuated (mainland Italy would be invaded in September)

• Mussolini became intimidated by Hitler

Mussolini deposed (1943):

• 24th July: Grand Council met & openly criticised Mussolini’s leadership → motion was introduced which called fora democratic parl & a return to a constitutional monarchy (passed by 19:7 votes)

• Mussolini was dismissed by the king & arrested → regime had collapsed within hours

• Liberated in a German raid → placed in charge of the Republic of Salo

Democracy restored (1943-46)- The Allied Invasion:

• Allied invasion of Italian mainland began 3rd September 1943

• troops landing in the south were mainly unopposed as the new Italian Gov had secretly agreed to come over to the Allied side

• Only the German forces left in Italy were left → they were ordered to keep front lines as far away from Germany as possible → forming the Winter Line that cut off Italy just below Rome

• Allied advance took 4 months to push through the Line BUT had to pause on pushing North- France Western coastline took priority

Democracy restored (1943-46)- The Republic of Salo & the gov in the South:

Mussolini was imprisoned by new regime but was rescued by German raid

• 15th Sep 1943: Mussolini (under instructions of Hitler) declared the creation of a new fascist state in Italy- Republic of Salo

• New role: Mussolini served as a puppet ruler of the new northern state (funded & effectively under control of Nazis)

• Support for new regime: limited & rejected by most Italians → it employed whatever low-level mercenaries/remaining Fascist military units to form Militia (harassed & murdered any opposers)

• Response: several anti-fascist resistance groups formed → led to civil war in Italy & chaos for civilians

Gov in south:

• Allied Military Government

• Had minimal influence

• Tiny army

• Poor conditions

• Change of leaders (risks of them being close to Fascism)

Democracy restored (1943-46)- German Surrender & the death of Mussolini:

German Surrender:

• 1945: Mass aerial bombardment & armoured divisions battered the last German defenders

• Same time- Italian Partisans called for uprising → remaining German forces in Italy forced into retreat (many escaped back to German territory before Partisans could capture & murder them)

• German Army in Italy surrendered to allies- effectively ending Italy’s role in WWII

Mussolini’s Death:

• New regime was subject to attacks (land & aerial) → Mussolini blamed the failure of war on population for failing to achieve expansion

• Mussolini attempted to flee (disguised as a German soldier) → Partisans kidnapped him & his mistress → killing them & displaying their bodies publicly

Democracy restored (1943-46)- Outcomes of the Referendum & Elections:

• Marginalised/banned parties could re-emerge

• North: strong lean towards Communism (Italian Communist Party- PCI)

• South: strong support for monarchy & authoritarian system of gov

• 1946: Constitutional Referendum called to decide whether Italy should be ruled by a dynastic leader OR return to a republic → Favoured a Republic

• Royal family removed → Italian republic was born

• Elections: results showed a polarised nature of opinion → Christian Democratic Party, Socialists & Communists formed a coalition

• Cold War: Support for Socialists & Communists depleted rapidly → leaving Christian Democrats to hold a majority for many years