AP Environmental Science Final

Flashcards for vocabulary review.

Soil Horizon

A layer of soil parallel to the Earth’s surface with distinct physical, chemical, and biological properties.

Pedon

The smallest 3D unit of soil studied, typically ~1-10m².

Soil Profile

A vertical section showing all soil horizons from surface to bedrock.

Master Soil Horizons and Features

O: Organic matter (leaves, twigs); A: Top mineral layer, dark, humus-rich; E: Eluviation zone, light-colored; B: Accumulation zone (clay, oxides); C: Weathered parent material; R: Bedrock.

First Soil Horizon

O: Organic matter (leaves, twigs)

Second Soil Horizon

A: Top mineral layer, dark, humus-rich

Third Soil Horizon

E: Eluviation zone, light-colored

Fourth Soil Horizon

B: Accumulation zone (clay, oxides)

Fifth Soil Horizon

C: Weathered parent material

Sixth Soil Horizon

R: Bedrock

Types of Horizon Boundaries (Abrupt, Clear, etc…)

Abrupt: <1 inch; Clear: 1–2.5 inches; Gradual: 2.5–5 inches; Diffuse: >5 inches

Horizon Boundary 1

Abrupt: <1 inch

Horizon Boundary 2

Clear: 1–2.5 inches

Horizon Boundary 3

Gradual: 2.5–5 inches

Horizon Boundary 4

Diffuse: >5 inches

Transitional Horizons

Horizon zones that show features of two master horizons, e.g., AB is mostly A with some B traits.

Subordinate Horizon Symbol 1

Oi: Slightly decomposed

Subordinate Horizon Symbol 2

Ap: Plowed

Subordinate Horizon Symbol 3

Bt: Clay accumulation

Subordinate Horizon Symbol 4

Bg: Gleyed, wet

Subordinate Horizon Symbol 5

Bw: Weathered

Subordinate Horizon Symbol 6

Bx: Fragipan;

Subordinate Horizon Symbol 7

Bk: Lime accumulation

Direction of Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy flows one way from the Sun to producers to consumers; it is not recycled.

Producers and Their Role

Convert solar energy to usable forms via photosynthesis.

Trophic Level One in Ecosystem

Producers

Trophic Level Two in Ecosystem

Primary consumers (herbivores)

Trophic Level Three in Ecosystem

Secondary consumers

Trophic Level 4 in Ecosystem

Tertiary consumers

Rule in Energy Transfer

Only about 10% of the energy at one trophic level is passed to the next level.

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

The total amount of solar energy captured by producers.

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

The energy remaining after respiration

Ecological Efficiency

The percentage of usable energy transferred between trophic levels (~10%).

Three Types of Biodiversity

Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.

Importance of Biodiversity

It increases ecosystem resilience, supports services like pollination, and offers genetic resources.

Ecosystem Disturbances

Events such as fires, storms, and human activities that disrupt ecosystems.

Restoration Ecology

The process of rehabilitating degraded ecosystems.

Sustainability

Using resources in a way that does not deplete them or harm ecosystems.

Watershed

An area of land that drains into a specific water body.

Effect of Slope and Soil Type on Watersheds

Steeper slopes = more erosion; sandy soils = more infiltration; clay = more runoff.

Effect of Vegetation on Watersheds

It stabilizes soil, reduces erosion, and improves water quality.

Hubbard Brook Case Study

Clear-cutting caused nitrate loss; regrowth reduced it, showing the importance of vegetation.

Main Issues in the Chesapeake Bay

Nutrient and sediment pollution causing dead zones and habitat loss.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

The amount of oxygen available in water, essential for aquatic life.

Fecal Coliform Bacteria

Indicator of sewage contamination and potential pathogens.

Factors Affecting pH in Water

Acid rain, industrial discharges, algal blooms; ideal range is 6.5 - 8.2.

Causes of Turbidity

Erosion, runoff, waste discharge; affects sunlight penetration.

Nitrates and Phosphates

Nutrients from fertilizer and waste that can cause algal blooms and eutrophication.

Total Solids in Water

All suspended and dissolved particles; affect clarity and temperature.

Geography

Earth’s physical features and human interactions with them.

How Geographic Features Affect Human Activity

They influence settlement patterns, agriculture, and lifestyle.

Major Climate Zones

Tropical, temperate, arid, polar, and Mediterranean.

How People Adapt to Climate and Geography

Through architecture, farming methods, and infrastructure.

How Climate Affects Culture

It influences food, traditions, and economic activities.

Environmental Challenges Related to Climate

Natural disasters and climate change (e.g., sea level rise, desertification).

Tragedy of the Commons

Overuse of a shared, limited resource due to individual self-interest, leading to depletion.

Examples of Commons

Fisheries, forests, air, pastureland, water sources.

Factors Contributing to Resource Overuse

Lack of regulation, individual incentives, open access.

How to Solve the Tragedy of the Commons

Private ownership, regulation, community management, economic incentives.

The Green Revolution

Mid-20th century increase in agricultural productivity through science and technology.

Technologies Used in the Green Revolution

HYVs, synthetic fertilizers/pesticides, irrigation, mechanization.

Positive Effects of the Green Revolution

Increased yields, reduced hunger, economic growth.

Negative Effects of the Green Revolution

Environmental degradation, water shortages, soil loss, inequality.

Plowing and Tilling

Soil preparation methods that loosen soil and expose nutrients but can cause erosion.

Slash-and-Burn Agriculture

Burning vegetation to release nutrients; short-term fertility, long-term degradation.

Compare Synthetic and Organic Fertilizers

Fast, customizable, polluting; Slow, improves soil health.

Common Irrigation Problems

Waterlogging, salinization, aquifer depletion.

Aquifers and Types

Underground water sources: unconfined (quick recharge), confined (slow recharge).

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Combines biological, physical, and limited chemical methods to control pests.

The Pesticide Treadmill

Increased pesticide use due to pest resistance.

CAFOs

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations: dense animal farms maximizing output.

Environmental Problems of CAFOs

Manure waste, eutrophication, antibiotic resistance.

Why Eat Lower on the Food Chain

More energy-efficient; less land and water use.

Ores

Concentrated mineral deposits valuable for extraction (e.g., copper, lithium).

Mining Methods

Surface (strip, open-pit, mountaintop) and subsurface (underground).

Mining Environmental Impacts

Erosion, water pollution, habitat loss, tailings.

Ecological Footprint

Measure of land/water required to support a lifestyle.

Carbon Footprint

Total GHG emissions from activities, in CO2‚‚ equivalents.

Fair Earthshare

The sustainable per-person share of productive land (~1.6 ha/person).

Sustainability

Using resources without compromising future needs.

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)

Largest harvest that can be sustained long-term.

Sustainability Indicators

Biodiversity, food production, global temps, population, resource depletion.

Goals of IPM

Reduce pesticide use, increase yields, lower environmental impact.

Sustainable Farming Practices

Composting, rotation, intercropping, agroforestry, no-till, cover crops.

No-Till Farming

Agriculture with minimal soil disturbance; reduces erosion, retains carbon.

Pros of Aquaculture

Reduces overfishing, efficient, small footprint.

Cons of Aquaculture

Waste pollution, disease, escapes affecting wild fish.

Sustainable Forestry

Logging that maintains biodiversity, water, and soil quality.

Global Sustainability Challenges

Population growth, consumption disparity, environmental degradation.

What Sustainability Efforts Must Include

Innovation, policy, global cooperation, behavior change.

Major Fossil Fuels

Coal, oil, natural gas.

Impacts of Fossil Fuels

Air pollution, GHG emissions, resource depletion, health effects.

How Nuclear Power Works

Uses fission of uranium-235 to generate heat, produce steam, turn turbines.

Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy

Pros: high energy, low emissions; Cons: waste disposal, cost, accidents.

How Hydroelectric Power Works

Falling water turns turbines; most commonly uses dams.

Pros and Cons of Hydro

Pros: renewable, no emissions; Cons: habitat disruption, methane from reservoirs.

Wind Energy

Electricity generated from the kinetic energy of moving air.

Wind Energy Pros/Cons

Pros: clean, cheap to operate; Cons: bird kills, aesthetics, intermittency.

The 6 Criteria Pollutants

SO2, NOx, CO, PM, Pb, O3 (particulate matter, ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and lead)

Primary and Secondary Pollutants

Directly emitted; Formed in the atmosphere.