★★The Problem of Evil and Suffering

theodicy

an attempt to justify God in the face of evil in the world

natural evil

evil and suffering caused by non-human agencies

moral evil

the evil done and the suffering caused by deliberate misuse of human free will

privatio boni

a phrase used by Augustine to mean an absence of goodness

omnipotent

all-powerful

omnibenevolent

all-good and all-loving

epistemic distance

a distance in knowledge and understanding

different presentations of the problem of evil

• the problem of evil is both a logical problem and an evidential one

• attempts to defend God despite the existence of evil and suffering in the world are called theodicies

natural and moral evil

• natural evil is said to be that which causes suffering but does not come from any human wrongdoing. for example, many diseases and extreme weather conditions, such as hurricanes and floods

• moral evil is said to be the cause of suffering as that which causes suffering as the result of human wrongdoing. for example, murder, war, poverty

the problem of evil as a logical problem

• the inconsistent triad argument says that these three beliefs (God’s omnipotence, God’s goodness, evil existing) cannot all be held at the same time without contradiction

• the logical formulation of the problem of evil assumes that an all-loving and all-powerful God would not want any evil and suffering in the world

• J.L Mackie

• it, therefore, concludes that if there is evil and suffering in the world, a God with these attributes cannot exist

• it is an a priori argument - if the premises are true then the conclusion follows

• solutions to this logical problem might include suggesting that God is not totally powerful, that God is not totally loving, or that evil is an illusion or is actually good for us in spite of appearing to be bad

the evidential problem of evil

• as an evidential problem, this involves a posteriori reasoning

• the argument says that there is too much evil and suffering in the world for the belief ‘there is an all-good, all-powerful God’ to be the best explanation of the evidence

• a better explanation might be that good and evil simply happen by chance, without the agency of God

• John Stuart Mill argued that the extent of evil and suffering in the world does not suggest a good God, but instead suggests that if there is a creator behind the world, it must be a malevolent creator

the theodicy of Augustine - 4th century

• Augustine’s theodicy was influenced by his earlier Manichee beliefs that the world was divided between forces of good and forces of evil

• Augustine argued that evil is a ‘privatio boni’, or absence of good, and not a force in its own right

• he thought variety is part of the rich goodness of God’s creation. if things are varied then naturally some things will have more abilities and strengths than others

• Augustine believed that God created angels (perfect spiritual beings), who were varied in their characters

• some angels received less grace that others and so were less able to worship God without falling into sin - Lucifer - Satan

• some angels fell away from God and became sinful because they misused their free will

• Adam and Eve, the first people, were tempted away from god by a fallen angel. they also misused their free will by choosing to disobey God and commit sin

• their sin was so catastrophic that it corrupted the natural world as well as the human soul → natural and moral evil came into the world

possible criticisms of Augustinian theodicy

• the idea of evil as just an absence of good does not seem an adequate explanation of terrible crimes, genocides and natural disasters

• Augustine fails to explain adequately why the angels and then humanity fell from grace if they were created perfectly - surely there would have been no temptation, and they would not have given in to it

• Augustine’s theodicy calls into question the omnipotence and wisdom of God, if God did not anticipate the misuse of free will

• it calls into question the omnipotence of God, if God could not simply undo the damage that had been done

• Augustine’s theodicy depends on a literal belief in angels and a belief that the Fall was a historical event, which can be difficult beliefs for people in the 21st century

possible strengths of Augustinian theodicy

• Augustine could be admired for presenting a response to the problem of evil which maintains the idea that God is all-good and all-powerful

• Augustine makes use of biblical text as an authority to support his view

• Augustine makes humanity face up to its role is causing evil and suffering in the world

the theodicy of Irenaeus - 2nd century

• Irenaeus was a very early Christian

• he accepted that evil and suffering exist and that God appears to allow them to continue

• he argued that God allows evil and suffering so that people can develop into feely chosen, mature relationships with God

• he said that there has to be evil in the world for us to appreciate good

• there have to be fewer good things in the world in order for virtues such as kindness, bravery and generosity to exist at all

• we are made in God’s image but we have to grow into God’s likeness

• free will is an important part of being made in the image of God

• we could not have a free relationship with God unless we have genuine options to choose otherwise. evil has to be a real option for us

• we cannot grow totally into the likeness of God in this world, and there is a life after death in which we can complete our spiritual development

John Hick’s soul making theodicy

• Hick took an Irenaean approach to the problem of evil

• he described the world as a ‘vale of soul-making’ in his book ‘Evil and the God of Love’

• Hick saw the world as a place where our characters and souls are shaped

• evil and suffering are not an unfortunate accident but a part of God’s loving plan to help us grow into a free relationship with him

• God deliberately keeps himself partly hidden from us so that there is ‘epistemic distance’ - we can make free choices if God does not force himself on us in an immediate way

• through tackling challenges and hardships we can learn to turn to God through free choice

• Hick thought that after death, we continue in our spiritual journeys towards a free choice for God, and this option is open to people of any belief

possible criticisms of Irenaean theodicies, including Hick

• the idea that evil exists in the world for our own good can seem self-contradictory - if evil (including moral evil) is really good for us then there is confusion between good and evil, making concepts such as sin and salvation difficult to comprehend

• the idea that God put evil in the world in order to help us develop and grow can become unacceptable when the suffering is great, for example where there is childhood cancer or an act of terrorism or genocide

• the idea that God’s love is difficult for us to comprehend can present problems if we are trying to be more like God and do not understand what that means

• the argument that God has to allow evil in order for us to have free will suggests limitations on God’s omnipotence

• tackling challenges and hardships makes some people lose their faith rather than gain it. an omniscient God should know this in advance of making such people suffer

• this kind of theodicy does not give an adequate explanation of why animals, very small babies or people with severe learning difficulties suffer

possible strengths of Irenaean theodicies, including Hick

• these theodicies could be comforting to those who suffer because they suggest that there is a plan and it will turn out well in the end

• we can relate to the idea that facing challenges help us to develop

How convincing is the claim that it is necessary for there to be evil in the world if we are to have genuine free will?

‘Irenaeus’ theodicy gives a more satisfactory response to the problem of evil than Augustine’s theodicy’ Discuss