BIO EXAM FINAL STUDY GUIDE

What is discovery-based science?

involves observing and recording data without a specific hypothesis, leading to new knowledge based on patterns or relationships.

What is hypothesis testing in science?

involves proposing a testable explanation (hypothesis) and conducting experiments to confirm or reject it.

What is the scientific method?

involves making observations, forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

What is the difference between a control group and an experimental group?

control is not exposed to the experimental treatment, while the experimental group is subjected to the treatment to observe its effects.

What is a scientific theory?

is a well-supported explanation of natural phenomena, while a hypothesis is a proposed explanation and a law describes a universal principle.

What is the chemical basis of life?

elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and others that form molecules essential for biological functions.

What are the characteristics of subatomic particles?

Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a negative charge. Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, and electrons orbit the nucleus.

What are orbitals, electron shells, and valence electrons?

Orbitals are regions where electrons are likely to be found. Electron shells are layers around the nucleus where electrons are located. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell.

How do you calculate the total number of subatomic particles?

The number of protons equals the atomic number, neutrons are found by subtracting the atomic number from the atomic mass, and electrons equal the number of protons in a neutral atom.

What elements make up most of the mass of living organisms?

The elements are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S).

What are atomic interactions that form molecules?

Atoms interact through ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds to form molecules.

What is electronegativity and how does it affect bonding?

is the ability of an atom to attract electrons. It determines whether a bond is polar (unequal sharing) or nonpolar (equal sharing).

What are the chemical properties of water critical for life?

has high cohesion, adhesion, a high specific heat, and is a solvent for many substances, making it essential for life processes.

What are acidic and basic conditions?

have a pH less than 7, and basic solutions have a pH greater than 7. Buffers help maintain pH balance in organisms.

What is the difference between organic and inorganic molecules?

Organic molecules contain carbon-hydrogen bonds, while inorganic molecules may not contain carbon or may lack the carbon-hydrogen bonds.

Why are carbon atoms important for life?

Carbon atoms form stable, diverse bonds and are the backbone of organic molecules, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

What are macromolecules and how are they synthesized or broken down?

Macromolecules are large molecules made from smaller subunits (monomers) via dehydration (synthesis) or hydrolysis (breakdown) reactions.

What are the major organic molecules needed for life?

The major organic molecules are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, each with specific functions in living organisms.

What are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

How do plant and animal cells differ?

Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and large vacuoles, while animal cells lack these structures.

What are the four interacting systems in a eukaryotic cell?

The four systems are the nucleus, cytosol, endomembrane system, and semiautonomous organelles (mitochondria and plastids).

What is the structure and function of the plasma membrane?

The plasma membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer and regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

What is the difference between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion?

Simple diffusion moves molecules through the membrane without help, while facilitated diffusion uses membrane proteins to help move molecules.

What is osmosis?

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

What are the four stages of cellular respiration?

are glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain and chemiosmosis).

What are the reactants and products of cellular respiration?

Reactants: glucose and oxygen. Products: ATP, carbon dioxide, and water.

How does photosynthesis power the biosphere?

converts solar energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen, which sustain life on Earth.

Where does photosynthesis take place in plant cells?

occurs in the chloroplasts, in the thylakoid membranes (light reactions) and the stroma (Calvin cycle).

What are the two phases of photosynthesis?

are the light reactions (producing ATP and NADPH) and the Calvin cycle (producing glucose).

What is a photosystem?

is a complex of proteins and chlorophyll molecules that absorb light energy and use it to drive the light reactions.

What is the difference between linear and cyclic electron flow?

Linear electron flow produces both ATP and NADPH, while cyclic electron flow produces only ATP.

What are the key criteria that genetic material must fulfill?

must store information, replicate accurately, allow for variation, and be passed on to offspring.

What are the structural features of DNA?

DNA has a double helix structure made of nucleotides, with sugar-phosphate backbones and nitrogenous bases (A-T, G-C) forming the rungs.

What is the function of DNA polymerase in replication?

adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand during replication, following the base-pairing rules.

What is the difference between the leading and lagging strands during DNA replication?

The leading strand is synthesized continuously, while the lagging strand is synthesized in Okazaki fragments.

What is the difference between cell division and the cell cycle?

Cell division refers to the process of a cell splitting into two daughter cells, while the cell cycle includes all events leading up to and following cell division.

What happens during mitosis?

is the process of cell division where a single cell divides to form two genetically identical daughter cells.

What is the role of the cell cycle in growth and development?

controls cell division and replication, allowing for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.

What is cancer and how is it related to the cell cycle?

Cancer occurs when the cell cycle is uncontrolled, leading to abnormal cell division and tumor formation.

What is meiosis and how does it promote genetic diversity?

is the process of cell division that reduces chromosome number by half, producing gametes with unique genetic combinations.

What did Gregor Mendel discover?

the basic principles of inheritance, including the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment.

What is the Law of Segregation?

states that allele pairs separate during gamete formation, so each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

What is the Law of Independent Assortment?

states that genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other.

What is the chromosome theory of inheritance?

states that genes are located on chromosomes and the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis explains inheritance patterns.

What is a genotype?

is the genetic makeup of an organism, representing the alleles it inherits.

What is a phenotype?

is the observable characteristics or traits of an organism, determined by its genotype and environmental factors.

What is evolution?

is the change in the genetic composition of a population over time due to factors like mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift.

How did Darwin contribute to the theory of evolution?

proposed the theory of natural selection, explaining that organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

What is natural selection?

is the process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on those traits to the next generation.

What is genetic drift?

is the random fluctuation of allele frequencies in a population, especially in small populations.

What is the difference between stabilizing, directional, and disruptive selection?

Stabilizing selection favors average traits, directional selection favors one extreme, and disruptive selection favors both extremes.

What evidence supports the theory of evolution?

Evidence includes fossil records, comparative anatomy (homologies), molecular biology (DNA), and biogeography.

What are the conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

no mutation, random mating, no natural selection, large population size, and no gene flow.

What causes microevolution?

is caused by mutations, natural selection, gene flow, genetic drift, and non-random mating.

What is gene flow?

is the movement of alleles between populations, increasing genetic diversity within populations.

What is sexual selection?

is a type of natural selection where traits that increase an individual's chances of mating are favored.

What is the founder effect?

occurs when a small group establishes a new population, reducing genetic diversity.

What is the bottleneck effect?

occurs when a population's size is dramatically reduced, leading to a loss of genetic diversity.