Argumentation Terms

Appeal to Doubtful Authority

A fallacy in which an argument is supported by using the words of one who has no expertise in the subject but are known for something else. This often involves citing celebrities or public figures instead of experts.

Argumentation

Appeal to Reason

Argumentation from Analogy

A special type of inductive argument, where perceived similarities are used as a basis to infer some further similarity that has not been observed yet.

Antithesis

An opposing statement to one’s thesis, typically used in argumentation in a rebuttal or even in one’s argument to further prove the thesis by providing evidence against the statement.

Begging the Question

A logical fallacy that assumes in the premise what the arguer should be trying to prove in the conclusion. Asks readers to agree that points are self-evident when they are not.

Claim

Main point of the essay

Common Knowledge

Information easily found in multiple sources

Concede

To admit that an argument is valid

Debatable Thesis

A thesis that states a position that at least some people will not agree with

Deduction

The act of drawing logical conclusions based on the information given in a text, using one's personal experiences and knowledge of the world; has a strict form

Distributed

Covers all of the items in the class it denotes

Dual Challenge

Event which one defends their own position while also critiquing the opposing position

Evidence

Facts and opinions in support of your position

Ethos

Appeal to credibility or belief

Equivocation

A fallacy in which the meaning of a key term changes at some point in an argument

Facts

Statement of truth

Fallacy

An illogical statement that may sound reasonable or true but is actually deceptive and false.

False Dilemma

A fallacy in which the composer suggests that only two alternatives exist even though there may be others that exist or can be compromised upon

Grounds

Evidence used as support for the claim (in Toulmin Logic)

Induction (Inductive Reasoning)

A type of reasoning that uses specific observations to make a general conclusion.

Inductive Leap

Refers to the process of making a generalization or drawing a conclusion based on limited observations or evidence.

It Does Not Follow (Non Sequitur)

A fallacy in which a statement does not logically follow from a previous statement

Jumping to Conclusion (Hasty or Sweeping Generalization)

A fallacy which occurs when a conclusion is reached based on too little evidence

Logos

Appeal to Logic

Major Premise

A general statement

Minor Premise

A more specific statement

Misleading Statistics

A fallacy in which statistics are misrepresented or distorted in an attempt to influence an audience

Opinions

An interpretation of facts

Pathos

Appeal to Emotion

Personal Attack (Ad Hominem)

A fallacy which tries to divert attention from the facts of an argument by attacking the motives or character of the person making the argument.

Persuasion

A general term which refers to how a writer influences an audience to adopt a belief or follow a course of action. Relies on appeals such as pathos, ethos, and logos.

Plagiarism

Presenting words or ideas of others as if they were your own

Post Hoc Reasoning (Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc) (After This, Therefore Because of This)

A fallacy which assumes that because two events occur close together in time, the first must be the cause of the second.

Purpose

What you expect your argument to accomplish and how you wish the audience to respond

Red Herring

A fallacy which occurs when the focus of an argument is shifted to divert the audience from the actual issue

Refutation

Dealing with opposing arguments

Relevant

Information that relates to your argument

Representative

Represents the full range of opinions about your subject

Rogerian Argument

A confrontational form of argumentation in which you approach those who disagree with you as colleagues instead of adversaries; you have a cooperative relationship finding points of compromise and agreement to find mutually satisfying solutions

Skeptical

Adjective describing being open to ideas but needs to be convinced

Sound

Valid; All aspects are true

Straw Man

A technique which distorts an opposing argument making it seem weaker than it actually is

Sufficient

enough information to satisfy an argument

Sweeping Generalization

Also known as jumping to a conclusion, a fallacy which occurs when a conclusion is reached on the basis of too little evidence

Syllogism

Basic form of a deductive argument; contains a major premise, minor premise, and a conclusion which all follow a logical (and typically strict) order

Toulmin Logic

A form of argument structure which consists of claim, grounds, and warrant.

Undistributed

Covers only some of the items in the class it denotes

You Also (Tu Quoque)

A fallacy which asserts that an opponent’s argument has no value because the opponent does not follow his or her own advice

Valid

Having a sound basis in logic or fact; reasonable or cogent.

Warrant

Inference that connects the claim to the grounds