General Psychology (ch 9, 10 + Lang. Lect)

motivation

a stimulus that can direct behavior, thinking, and feeling

incentive

an association established between a behavior and its consequences, which then motivates that behavior

extrinsic motivation

the drive or urge to continue a behavior because of external reinforcers

intrinsic motivation

the drive or urge to continue a behavior because of internal reinforcers

instincts

complex behaviors that are fixed, unlearned, and consistent within a species

homeostasis

the tendency for bodies to maintain constant states through internal controls

drive-reduction theory

suggests that homeostasis motivates us to meet biological needs

needs

physiological or psychological requirements that must be maintained at some baseline or constant state

drive

a state of tension that pushes us (motivates our behaviors) to meet a need

arousal theory

suggests that humans are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal, or alertness and engagement in the world

hierarchy of needs

a continuum of needs that are universal and ordered in terms of the strength of their associated drives

self-actualization

the need to be one's best and strive for one's fullest potential

self-determination theory (SDT)

suggests that humans are born with the needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy, which are always driving us in the direction of growth and optimal functioning

need for achievement (n-Ach)

a drive to reach attainable and challenging goals, especially in the face of competition

need for power (n-Pow)

a drive to control and influence others

sexuality

a dimension of human nature encompassing everything that makes us sexual beings: sexual activities, attitudes, and behaviors

orgasm

a powerful combination of extremely gratifying sensations and a series of rhythmic muscular contractions

refractory period

an interval of time during which a man cannot attain another orgasm

sexual orientation

a person's enduring sexual attraction to others; a continuum that includes dimensions of sexuality, attraction, desire, and emotions

heterosexual

attraction to members of the opposite sex

homosexual

an antiquated and derogatory term referring to those who are attracted to members of the same sex

bisexual

being attracted to more than one sex or gender

sexual dysfunction

a significant disturbance in the ability to respond sexually or to gain pleasure from sex

sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

diseases or illnesses transmitted through sexual activity

set point

the stable weight that is maintained despite variability in exercise and food intake

emotion

a psychological state that includes a subjective or inner experience, physiological component, and behavioral expression

James-Lange theory of emotion

suggests that a stimulus initiates the experience of physiological and/or behavioral reaction, and this reaction leads to the feeling of an emotion

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

suggests that environmental stimuli are the starting point for emotions, and physiological or behavioral responses occur at the same time emotions are felt

Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

suggests that the experience of emotion is the result of physiological arousal and a cognitive label for this physiological state

display rules

framework or guidelines for when, how, and where an emotion is expressed

facial feedback hypothesis

suggests that the facial expression of an emotion can affect the experience of that emotion

dual hypothalamic control

two parts of hypothalamus (lateral and ventro-medial)

lateral hypothalamus

considered as an "on-switch"

ventro-medial

considered as on "off switch"

glucostatic control

system of monitoring how much glucose is in our body, if there isn't a lot the LH is activated, and if there is a lot the VMH is activated (considered short-term regulation)

hormonal control

hormones that affect hunger such as cholecystolcinin and ghrelin

cholecystolcinin (CCK)

triggered by food entering the duodenum (appetite suppressor)

duodenum

reduces palatability of food which reduces hedonic quality

ghrelin

operates on bodily rhythms when its high you're hungry when it's low you're not (appetite stimulant)

leptin

hormone in fat cells based on how big fat cell are (low levels you feel hungry, high levels you don't feel hungry)

metabolism

relates to how fast your body uses energy (base rate drops in mid 20's and you put on weight)

classical conditioning

you like/feel inclined to eat foods you do because you ate them growing up and seeing food makes you want to eat it

taste aversion

conditioned to dislike foods, you're not born with it

operant conditioning

what food you choose to eat, how fast you eat, etc based on punishment/rewards in the environment

observational learning

watching other people receive rewards/punishment and modeling your behavior based off it

social/cultural factors

habits developed off of environment/culture you grew up in (for example not eating as a family, have to eat everything on your plate)

emotional factors

emotional feelings that factor into behaviors

depression

most people who have this lose their appetite so they lose weight because they have a loss of pleasure

Lazarus-Appraisal theory

same as the Schacter-Singer theory, but stresses not focusing on applying a label to the cognitive appraisal

Dutton+Aron (1974)

emotional theory where there's a misinterpretation of their physiological arousal and they accredit it to the wrong stimulus (example of being attracted to the girl after walking over a high/dangerous bridge)

Valins+Ray (1968)

emotional theory where there's a wrong appraisal of physiological arousal, but its beneficial (example of snakes and heart rate, making people less afraid of snakes)

Ekman's Six Universal Facial Expressions of Emotion

includes joy, anger, sadness, disgust, fear, and surprise

personality

the unique, core set of characteristics that influence the way one thinks, acts, and feels, which are relatively consistent and enduring throughout the life span

psychoanalysis

Freud's theories of personality as well as his system of psychotherapy and tools for the exploration of the unconscious

unconscious

according to Freud, the level of consciousness outside of awareness, which is difficult to access without effort or therapy

id

according to Freud, the most primitive structure of the mind, the activities of which occur at the unconscious level and are guided by the pleasure principle

pleasure principle

a principle that guides the id, directing behavior toward instant gratification and away from contemplating consequences

ego

according to Freud, the structure of the mind that uses the reality principle to manipulate situations, plan for the future, solve problems, and make decisions to satisfy the needs of the id (acts as the executive)

reality principle

a principle that guides the ego as it negotiates between the id and the environment, directing behavior to follow society's rules (works on delayed gratification as opposed to instant)

superego

according to Freud, the structure of the mind that guides behavior to follow the rules of society, parents, or other authority figures

ego defense mechanisms

unconscious processes the ego uses to distort perceptions and memories and thereby reduce anxiety created by the id-superego conflict

psychosexual stages

according to Freud, the stages of development of sexuality and personality, form birth to adulthood, each of which has an erogenous zone and a conflict that must be dealt with

fixation

being stuck in a particular psychosexual stage of development; occurs when one is unsuccessful at resolving the conflict associated with that stage (can be aggressive or retentive)

oedipus complex

according to Freud, the attraction a boy feels towards his mother, along with resentment or envy directed towards his father, occurs during the phallic stage

collective unconscious

according to Jung, the universal experiences of humankind passed from generation to generation

archetypes

primal images, patterns of thought, and story lines stored in the collective unconscious, with themes that may be found in art, literature, music, dreams, and religion

self-concept

the knowledge an individual has about their strengths, abilities, behavior patterns, and temperament

ideal-self

the self-concept a person strives for and fervently wishes to achieve

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, the total acceptance or valuing of a person, regardless of behavior

expectancy

the predictions we make about the outcomes or consequence of our behaviors

social-cognitive perspective

suggests that personality results from relationships and other environmental factors (social) and patterns of thinking (cognitive)

self-efficacy

beliefs about our ability and effectiveness in reaching goals

reciprocal determinism

according to Bandura, multidirectional interactions among cognition, behaviors, and the environment

traits

the relatively stable properties that describe elements of personality

trait theories

theories that focus on personality dimensions and their influence on behavior; can be used to predict behaviors

surface traits

easily observable characteristics that derive from source traits

source traits

basic underlying or foundational characteristics of personality

five-factor model of personality

a trait approach to explaining personality, including dimensions of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism; also known as the "Big Five"

projective personality tests

assessments used to explore characteristics that might not be accessible through interview or observation; the test taker is presented with ambiguous stimuli and then projects meaning onto them (rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test)

eros

lifedrive and sex (libido)

sex

in Freud's terms - anything that causes bodily pleasure

thanatos

deathdrive and aggression

oral

pyschosexual stage from birth to 2 years that has an erogenous zone of the mouth

anal

psychosexual stage from 2 to 4 years that has an erogenous zone of the anus

phallic

psychosexual stage from 4 to 7 years that has an erogenous zone of the genitals

latency

psychosexual stages from 7 to 12 years that has no erogenous zone

genital

psychosexual stage from 12 years on that has an erogenous zone of the genitals

castration anxiety

fear little boys have that their fathers will cut off their penis

penis envy

little girls desire to have a penis because everyone with a penis has power throughout history

validity

when a test measures what it should be

reliability

how consistent a tests results are (test re-test, split half, inter-rater)

objective personality tests

uses a scoring scheme/template (MMPI)

language development

if it's not developed "in time" it might not ever fully develop

prelinguistic stage

consists of crying, cooing, and babbling

crying

part of the prelinguistic stage that takes place from birth to about 1 month of age

cooing

part of the prelinguistic stage that takes place from 1 to 6 months of age (intro to vowel sounds)

babbling

part of the prelinguistic stage that takes place from 6 to 10 months of age (intro to consonant sounds)

intonational patterns

form of paralanguage (all aspects of sounds hat aren't about definitions or grammar)

echolalia

mastering their "sounds" and find pleasure in hearing themselves talk; repeating their own sounds

first word

happens from 10 to 18 months of age; any sound or set of sounds with a consistent referant