US Constitution - GLR

What prompted the call for a Constitutional Convention?

• The Articles of Confederation were too weak

• No power to tax or regulate trade

• No national executive or judiciary

• Economic instability and unrest (e.g., Shays’ Rebellion)

• States often acted like independent countries

What happened at the Constitutional Convention?

• Met in Philadelphia, May 25 – September 17, 1787

• Originally meant to revise the Articles of Confederation

• Delegates decided to draft an entirely new constitution

• Intense debates and compromises shaped the final document

Who was involved and how?

• 55 delegates from 12 of 13 states (Rhode Island didn’t attend)

• George Washington was elected president of the convention

• Key figures: James Madison, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton

• Delegates were mostly well-educated, experienced statesmen

What was decided at the Constitutional Convention?

• Created a strong federal government with three branches

• Congress would be bicameral: House (by population), Senate (equal per state)

• Established powers like taxation, regulation of commerce, and a military

• Included checks and balances between branches

What disagreements were aired at the Constitutional Convention and how were they resolved?

• Big states vs. small states: resolved by the Connecticut Compromise

• Slave representation: resolved by the Three-Fifths Compromise

• Federal vs. state power: balanced through shared sovereignty

• Presidency: compromise on electoral college and term limits

What happened as the Constitution was drafted and finalized?

• Committee of Detail wrote the first draft

• Committee of Style polished and finalized the document

• Final Constitution was signed on September 17, 1787

• Sent to states for ratification

What happened as states ratified the Constitution?

• Required 9 out of 13 states to ratify

• Federalists supported ratification; Anti-Federalists opposed

• Debates over lack of a Bill of Rights

• Bill of Rights promised to secure final support

• Ratified in 1788; went into effect in 1789

What other significant events about the Constitution are discussed?

• Bill of Rights added in 1791 (first 10 amendments)

• Supreme Court began interpreting the Constitution

• Landmark cases like McCulloch v. Maryland strengthened federal authority

• Constitution has 27 amendments total

What ideas and influences shaped the Constitution?

• Enlightenment thinkers like Locke and Montesquieu

• British legal traditions and colonial charters

• Practical experience from state constitutions

• Aimed to create a balanced, flexible government

How does the Constitution structure the branches of government and what does it say about how they function?

• Legislative Branch (Article I): Makes laws; bicameral (House & Senate)

• Executive Branch (Article II): Enforces laws; led by President

• Judicial Branch (Article III): Interprets laws; led by Supreme Court

• Checks and Balances: Each branch limits the powers of the others

• Separation of Powers: Prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful

How does the Constitution specify that legislation becomes law?

• A bill must pass both the House and Senate

• Sent to the President for approval

• If signed → becomes law

• If vetoed → returns to Congress

• Congress can override veto with 2/3 vote in both chambers

What requirements does the Constitution specify to hold various offices?

• House Representative: Age 25+, citizen for 7 years, live in state

• Senator: Age 30+, citizen for 9 years, live in state

• President: Age 35+, natural-born citizen, U.S. resident for 14 years

• Federal Judge: No age or citizenship requirement; serves for life (good behavior)

What do the various amendments accomplish?

• Bill of Rights (1–10): Protect speech, religion, trial rights, privacy, etc.

• 13th Amendment: Abolished slavery

• 14th Amendment: Guaranteed equal protection under law

• 15th, 19th, 24th, 26th Amendments: Protected voting rights

• 22nd Amendment: Limited President to 2 terms

• 27th Amendment: Delayed congressional pay raises until next term

How do various parts of the Constitution affect federal-state relations?

• Federalism: Divides powers between federal and state governments

• Tenth Amendment: Reserves non-federal powers to the states or people

• Supremacy Clause (Article VI): Federal law overrides state law

• Article I, Section 10: Limits states from making treaties or coining money

• Shared Powers: Both levels can tax, create courts, enforce laws

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Marbury v. Madison (1803)?

• Facts: Marbury was appointed justice of the peace by John Adams but never received his commission. He sued Secretary of State Madison to compel delivery.

• Question: Could the Supreme Court issue a writ of mandamus to force delivery? Was the Judiciary Act of 1789 constitutional?

• Holding: Section 13 of the Judiciary Act was unconstitutional. Established the principle of judicial review.

• Reasoning: The Constitution sets limits on the Court’s original jurisdiction. Congress cannot expand it by statute.

• Opinion: Unanimous decision authored by Chief Justice John Marshall.

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in United States v. Nixon (1974)?

• Facts: President Nixon refused to turn over Oval Office tapes subpoenaed during the Watergate investigation.

• Question: Can the President claim absolute executive privilege to withhold evidence in a criminal trial?

• Holding: Executive privilege is limited, not absolute, and does not apply in criminal proceedings.

• Reasoning: The need for evidence in a fair trial outweighs generalized claims of privilege. The President is not above the law.

• Opinion: Unanimous 8–0 decision (Rehnquist recused).

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)?

• Facts: Clarence Gideon was denied a court-appointed lawyer in a Florida felony case and convicted.

• Question: Does the Sixth Amendment guarantee the right to counsel in state criminal trials?

• Holding: Yes. The right to counsel is fundamental and applies to states through the 14th Amendment.

• Reasoning: A fair trial isn’t possible without legal representation. Overturned Betts v. Brady.

• Opinion: Unanimous 9–0 decision.

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)?

• Facts: Students wore black armbands to protest the Vietnam War. The school suspended them.

• Question: Do students retain First Amendment rights at school?

• Holding: Yes. Symbolic speech is protected as long as it doesn’t disrupt school functions.

• Reasoning: The protest was peaceful. Students don’t lose constitutional rights at school.

• Opinion: 7–2 decision. Dissent from Justices Black and Harlan.

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Mapp v. Ohio (1961)?

• Facts: Police illegally searched Mapp’s home without a warrant and found obscene materials.

• Question: Can evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment be used in state courts?

• Holding: No. Illegally obtained evidence is inadmissible in both state and federal courts.

• Reasoning: The exclusionary rule is necessary to enforce the Fourth Amendment. Incorporated via the 14th Amendment.

• Opinion: 6–3 decision.

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Gonzales v. Raich (2005)?

• Facts: Angel Raich and Diane Monson legally used homegrown medical marijuana under California law. Federal DEA agents destroyed their plants under the Controlled Substances Act.

• Question: Can Congress ban locally grown medical marijuana under the Commerce Clause?

• Holding: Yes. Congress may prohibit intrastate medical marijuana cultivation as part of regulating the interstate market.

• Reasoning: Under Wickard v. Filburn, local use substantially affects the national market. The CSA is a valid exercise of Commerce Clause power.

• Opinion: 6–3 decision. Majority by Justice Stevens, Scalia concurred. Dissenters: O’Connor, Rehnquist, Thomas

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Brown v. Board of Education (1954)?

• acts: African American children in several states challenged segregation in public schools under the “separate but equal” doctrine.

• Question: Does segregated public education violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment?

• Holding: Yes. School segregation is inherently unequal and unconstitutional.

• Reasoning: Separation creates psychological harms and conveys a message of inferiority. Racial segregation thus violates equal protection.

• Opinion: Unanimous decision authored by Chief Justice Warren

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964)?

• Facts: Motel refused service to Black customers in violation of Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

• Question: Can Congress forbid racial discrimination in public accommodations under the Commerce Clause?

• Holding: Yes. Congress lawfully regulated private businesses affecting interstate commerce.

• Reasoning: Racial discrimination by hotels undermines interstate travel and commerce. Title II is valid under Commerce Clause.

• Opinion: Unanimous decision (Burger Court).

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Van Orden v. Perry (2005)?

• Facts: Ten Commandments monument on Texas State Capitol grounds was challenged as a violation of the Establishment Clause.

• Question: Does the display violate the First Amendment by promoting religion?

• Holding: No. The display has historical and cultural significance and does not primarily endorse religion.

• Reasoning: Context matters; not coercive or an active religious endorsement. Considered part of heritage.

• Opinion: 5–4 decision. Plurality by Rehnquist; dissents stressed religious messaging.

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky (2005)?

• Facts: County displayed framed Ten Commandments in courthouses; challenged as unconstitutional.

• Question: Do these displays violate the Establishment Clause?

• Holding: Yes. Displays intended to promote religion rather than historical context.

• Reasoning: Court looked at purpose—display lacked secular intent and emphasized religion.

• Opinion: 5–4 decision. Majority by Souter; dissent focused on tradition and state's right to express moral values.

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964)?

• Facts: Alabama official sued NYT for defamation over a civil-rights ad containing untrue allegations.

• Question: Does First Amendment protect media from libel claims by public officials absent actual malice?

• Holding: Yes. Public officials must prove “actual malice” to win defamation suits.

• Reasoning: Protects free debate; error must be tolerated. “Actual malice” balances protection and accountability.

• Opinion: Unanimous decision (Brennan Court).

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Texas v. Johnson (1989)?

• Facts: Johnson burned the American flag in protest. He was convicted under Texas law banning flag desecration.

• Question: Is flag burning protected speech under the First Amendment?

• Holding: Yes. It’s expressive conduct and protected symbolic speech.

• Reasoning: Government cannot prohibit expression based on its message or viewpoint.

• Opinion: 5–4 decision. Majority by Brennan; dissent argued flag deserved special protection.

What were the facts, questions, holding, reasoning, and opinions in Miranda v. Arizona (1966)?

• Facts: Miranda was interrogated without being informed of his rights and confessed. He was convicted.

• Question: Must police inform suspects of their rights (right to remain silent, counsel) before interrogation?

• Holding: Yes. Suspects must be warned; otherwise, statements aren't admissible.

• Reasoning: Protection against self-incrimination requires clear warnings and opportunity to invoke rights.

• Opinion: 5–4 decision. Majority by Warren; dissenters argued warnings unnecessary and harmful to effective law enforcement.