EXPH 2106- Memory and Learning

Memory

an internal representation/record of some prior event or experience

-persistence of information over time (not immediate recall)

Memory proccess

encoding —>storing—>retrieving

Encoding

transforming information that can be stored in memory

Storing

maintaining the encoded information in memory

Retrieving

Re-assessing information from the past which has been encoded and stored

Theoretical Perspectives on memory

-Cognitive based

-Dynamical systems

Cognitive based perspective

focus on brain structures responsible for storing individual memory components

-convergence center

Convergence center

location where individual memory components are assembled for retrieval

Dynamical Systems

neural networks adapt to their larger environments and organize into collectives, with specific memory being the final emergence property

-pattern recognition

Dynamical Systems example

recognize lunch bag, sound of wrapper, smell of food, reminds you what you packed

Memory Systems

Explicit

Implicit

Explicit Memory Systems

Conscious

Semantic

Episodic

Conscious Memory

declarative (knowing that)

Semantic Memory

facts (general knowledge)

Episodic Memory

events (personal knowledge)

Semantic Memory Example

“i know what a bicycle is”

Episodic Memory Example

“I remember my first bicycle”

Procedural memories

unconscious (knowing how)

Implicit memory

skilled movement

-allow us to dual task

-declarative knowledge typically needed first

Expert vs. Novice

-experts have better declarative knowledge of how this skill should be performed

-experts have less episodic memory of their actual performance

“choking”

Paralysis by analysis

What is Paralysis by Analysis?

experts pay too much conscious attention to their environment or performance

-end up utilizing declarative memories during the execution of skills that have long been encoded into procedural form

Attunement to Affordances

becoming more aware of the possibilities in the environment to accomplish skills effectively

-environmental features that “afford” us various movement opportunities

Attunement to Affordances Examples

-options when shooting a pool ball

-where to pass in nfl videogame

-parkour: recognizing features in your environment that allow you movement opportunities

-rock climbing

-various ways to move around playground

-maneuvering hike/waterfall (slippery rocks, water, etc)

Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory—>Short Term Memory —> Long Term Memory

Sensory Memory

1. information from the environment is encoded (transduction)

2. relevant signals are transferred to short term memory for attention and possible action

Sensory Registers

-different sensory memory stores for each modality

-information is here for a very brief period (seconds)

-relatively large capacity

Sensory Memory stores

-Iconic

-Haptic

-Hearing, taste, etc.

Iconic stores

visual ( eyes)

haptic stores

hands: texture, shape, density, slippery

Information holding in sensory registers

-most information is never further acted upon and lost to the system (99%)

-need to pay attention to relevant sensory info to become aware of it for further utility in STM

Short Term Memory

-working memory

-under conscious control

-limited capacity

-most info encoded into STM will also be permanently lost

STM Example

-don’t remember every word you say everyday

-don’t remember where you have parked your car every day in the past, but every individual day you can find your way back to where you left it

Working memory (STM)

-flexible, used to problem solve

-conscious control = holds and uses current and historic info

—>sensory register and longterm memory

-limited capacity

-temporal limit

Working memory: limited capacity

5-9 pieces of information for a single process

-chunking

Chunking

coherent, meaningful info; associations among items allow more info to be held and acted upon at any one time

temporal limit

info can only be held for 20-30 seconds before it dissipates and fades from memory (UNLESS ACTED UPON)

-rehearsal

Rehearsal

allows for the information to stay in STM longer (8-10 min)

-most info will be permanently lost before transfer to LTM (99%)

Long Term Memory

-relatively permanent storage

-responsible for learning

-unlimited capacity + duration; includes all types of info

-consolidation

Consolidation

processing needed for information to transfer to LTM

What is consolidation dependent on?

-attention

-rehearsal

-motivation

*time

Time + consolidation relationship

necessary to make structural changes in synaptic connections (24-72 hours)

Neuroanatomy of memory:

Limbic System (hippocampus, rhinal cortex, amygdala)

Basal Ganglia

Hippocampus + memory

spatial + working memory (active problem solving, route finding)

Rhinal cortex + memory

recognition memory (names/faces)

Amygdala + memory

STM —> LTM

What will injury to the limbic system lead to

anterograde amnesia (learned information after injury is lost)

Patient H.M

bilateral temporal lobectomies for seizure control

-no new memories could be formed

-procedural learning intact

Basal Ganglia

procedural memory — spatial and response aspects of tasks

—> works with cerebellum and supplementary motor area

what does the basal ganglia associate incoming sensory info with?

existing memory

-stores cognitive maps w/ hippocampus

Practice Considerations

-Primacy recency (serial order) effect

-Von Restorft (outstanding item) effect

-Practice distribution effect

-Priming effect

-emphasize location cues

-sleeping on it

Primacy-Recency Effect

information presented at the beginning and ending of a practice session is more readily learned than information in the middle

Von Restorft Effect

Information presented with special meaning, causing it to stand out from other info, will be easily remembered even if presented in the middle

Practice distribution effect

distributing practice across a longer period punctuated by rest breaks significantly enhances retention and recall

priming effect

brief intro of new information prior to when its practiced helps “to get the idea” of what they are going to do (gentile’s first stage)

-helps with activities in the middle of practice session

emphasize location cues

locations along the movement path (especially the endpoint) are given priority in coding early in learning

-more important than distance, force, velocity, etc. ***external focus

Sleeping on it

sleep plays an essential role in consolidation of memories, especially procedural ones

-more is not necessarily better; quality is more important

neural sharpening

early practice (many neurons activate), sleep (key cells needed are reinforced), skill masterered (only vital neurons fire)

Forgetting

-Trace-Decay theory

-interference theory

trace-decay theory

the original memory trace decays before being permanently encoded in LTM

-applies to forgetting in the sensory memory + STM, as well as LTM if not enough rehearsal or attention

interference theory

memories stored in the LTM block the retrieval of other memories

-the strength of interference depends on similarity and temporal closeness

“…” skills are more resistant to forgetting than “…” skills

continuous; discrete

Retroactive interference

interference of newer memories with retrieval of older memories

Proactive interference

interference of older memories with the learning and retrieval of newer memories

2 strategies for reducing interference

-separate similar skills within a practice schedule to reduce the effects of interference

-introduce new skills late in practice to reduce interference (practice does not need to be extensive at this stage)

What factors influence recall?

-type of task (serial, discrete, continuous)

-organizational complexity (#steps to learn, order variance, planning')

-individual

Positive individual recall influences on initial learning

-initial skill learning

-skill automaticity (test with distractor)

Positive individual recall influences on ability + experience

ability level + past experiences

-self paced learning and empowerment

Ways to increase the amount of original learning

-raise the criteria for mastery

-overlearning

raise the criteria for mastery

predetermine performance level established as the goal of practice

overlearning

additional practice beyond mastery

-maintenance

-deeper encoding

-refresher/retention practice

Foster understanding of the task

-include what, why, how

-include spatial and component-part as well as goals

-positively influence the task organization/cohesion

Memory aids (mnemonics)

verbal cues that conjure strong visual images or kinesthetic sensations

Contextual interference

-associated with RANDOM practice

-forgetting and recreating the movement each time it is revisited

-information processing is more elaborate

Encoding specificity

similarity between conditions in which encoding (practice) and retrieval (performance) occur enhances skill retention

Transfer of learning

Generalizability

Transfer =

the influence of practicing one skill on the learning of another, or the same skill in a different context

Transfer between very similar skills (surgery sim vs real, baseball vs ultimate frisbee vs wide receiver catch)

actual amount of transfer is very little typically

Explaining Transfer effects

-identical elements theory

-transfer appropriate processing

Identical elements theory

transfer occurs to the degree that 2 skills share common elements

-common elements may include kinematics, perceptual demands, general timing characteristics

transfer appropriate processing

similarity of the cognitive processing components is most important

-cognitive processing components include problem-solving skills, speed of decision making, attentional focus, rule application

Deliberate practice

effortful

-closely monitored + instructed

-directed toward future goals

-motivated by desire to improve performance

Play

-intrinsically motivated

-has a positive effect- enjoyable

-not carried out seriously

-participation is of more interest than the outcome

-flexibility