General Biology – Vocabulary Review

82 vocabulary flashcards covering fundamental terms from the general biology lecture notes.

Biology

The scientific study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.

Cellular Organization

The characteristic of living things to be composed of one or more cells, the basic units of life.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within an organism to maintain life.

Homeostasis

Regulation of internal conditions (e.g., body temperature) to maintain a stable, constant state.

Growth and Development

Ordered increase in size and progressive changes in form and function that occur in an organism’s life cycle.

Reproduction

The biological process by which new individual organisms are produced.

Response to Stimuli

Ability of an organism to detect and react to changes in its environment.

Evolution and Adaptation

Genetic change in populations over generations leading to traits that enhance survival and reproduction.

Prokaryotic Cell

A cell lacking a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., Bacteria, Archaea).

Eukaryotic Cell

A cell containing a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., plants, animals, fungi).

Golgi Apparatus

Organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

Lysosome

Membrane-bound vesicle containing digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.

Chloroplast

Plant cell organelle where photosynthesis occurs, converting light energy into chemical energy.

Cell Membrane

Phospholipid bilayer that controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

Cell Wall

Rigid outer layer in plants, fungi, and some bacteria that provides structure and protection.

Nucleus

Membrane-bound organelle that houses the cell’s DNA and controls gene expression.

Mitochondrion

Organelle known as the “powerhouse of the cell”; site of cellular respiration and ATP production.

Ribosome

Cell structure where protein synthesis occurs by translating mRNA into polypeptide chains.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Network of membranous sacs and tubules; rough ER synthesizes proteins, smooth ER synthesizes lipids.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Molecule that stores genetic information in the sequence of nucleotides A, T, G, and C.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

Nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis; includes mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.

Nucleotide

Basic building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

Double Helix

The twisted-ladder shape of the DNA molecule formed by two complementary strands.

Law of Segregation

Mendelian principle stating that allele pairs separate during gamete formation.

Law of Independent Assortment

Mendelian principle that genes for different traits segregate independently during gamete formation.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism; its specific set of alleles.

Phenotype

Observable physical or physiological traits of an organism determined by genotype and environment.

Dominant Trait

A trait that is expressed in the phenotype when at least one dominant allele is present.

Recessive Trait

A trait expressed only when two recessive alleles are present.

Incomplete Dominance

Inheritance pattern where heterozygotes exhibit an intermediate phenotype.

Codominance

Inheritance pattern where both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed.

Polygenic Inheritance

Trait controlled by two or more genes, often showing continuous variation (e.g., height, skin color).

Evolution

Process by which species change over time due to genetic variation and natural selection.

Natural Selection

Mechanism of evolution where traits enhancing survival and reproduction become more common.

Fossil Record

Chronological collection of life’s remains in sedimentary rock layers providing evidence of evolution.

Comparative Anatomy

Study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species, indicating common ancestry.

Population

Group of individuals of the same species living in a given area.

Community

All the different species living and interacting in a particular area.

Ecosystem

A biological community plus the physical environment interacting as a system.

Biome

Large ecological region characterized by specific climate, flora, and fauna (e.g., desert, tundra).

Biosphere

The global sum of all ecosystems; all life on Earth.

Producer

An organism (typically a plant or algae) that makes its own food through photosynthesis.

Consumer

Organism that obtains energy by feeding on producers or other consumers.

Decomposer

Organism, such as bacteria or fungi, that breaks down dead organisms and recycles nutrients.

Water Cycle

Continuous movement of water through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.

Carbon Cycle

Movement of carbon among the atmosphere, biosphere, oceans, and geosphere.

Nitrogen Cycle

Process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms, vital for living organisms.

Phosphorus Cycle

Movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere; lacks atmospheric phase.

Succession

Sequential change in species composition of an ecosystem over time after disturbance.

Biodiversity

Variety of life forms in an ecosystem, biome, or on the entire Earth.

Circulatory System

Body system that transports blood, nutrients, gases, and wastes; includes heart and vessels.

Respiratory System

System responsible for gas exchange, primarily oxygen intake and carbon dioxide release (lungs in humans).

Digestive System

System that breaks down food into nutrients for absorption; includes stomach and intestines.

Nervous System

Network of neurons and supporting cells that coordinates body activities and responds to stimuli.

Musculoskeletal System

Combined system of muscles and skeleton enabling movement and structural support.

Excretory System

System that removes metabolic wastes from the body, primarily via kidneys.

Endocrine System

System of glands that secrete hormones to regulate body processes.

Immune System

Defense system that protects the body against pathogens and foreign substances.

Reproductive System

Organs and structures involved in producing offspring.

Mitosis

Division of a somatic cell resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

Cell division producing four non-identical haploid gametes for sexual reproduction.

Gamete

Haploid sex cell (sperm or egg) formed through meiosis.

Asexual Reproduction

Reproduction without gamete fusion, producing genetically identical offspring.

Sexual Reproduction

Reproduction involving fusion of gametes, resulting in genetic diversity among offspring.

CRISPR-Cas9

Genome-editing technique using a guide RNA and Cas9 enzyme to cut and modify DNA at precise sites.

Recombinant DNA Technology

Method of joining DNA from two different sources to create new genetic combinations.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Technique to amplify specific DNA sequences rapidly in vitro.

Gel Electrophoresis

Laboratory method for separating DNA, RNA, or proteins based on size and charge.

Biotechnology

Use of living organisms or systems to develop products that improve life, health, and environment.

Bacteria

Single-celled prokaryotes with diverse shapes (cocci, bacilli, spirilla); roles include decomposition and pathogenesis.

Virus

Non-living infectious agent composed of genetic material inside a protein coat; requires host cell to replicate.

Fungi

Heterotrophic eukaryotes including molds and yeasts; decomposers and sometimes pathogens.

Protist

Diverse group of mostly single-celled eukaryotes, including algae and protozoa.

Photosynthesis

Process in plants and some microbes converting CO₂ and H₂O into glucose and O₂ using sunlight.

Xylem

Vascular plant tissue that transports water and minerals from roots to shoots.

Phloem

Vascular tissue that transports sugars and other organic nutrients throughout the plant.

Stomata

Pores on plant leaves that regulate gas exchange and transpiration.

Pollination

Transfer of pollen from anthers to stigma, enabling fertilization in plants.

Fertilization (Plant)

Fusion of sperm from pollen with egg in the ovule, forming a zygote.

Invertebrate

Animal without a backbone (e.g., insects, mollusks, octopuses).

Vertebrate

Animal with a backbone, including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Mammary Gland

Milk-producing gland characteristic of mammals for nourishing offspring.

Deforestation

Large-scale removal of forests leading to habitat loss and environmental impacts.

Bioremediation

Use of microorganisms or plants to detoxify and restore polluted environments.