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Stepping

Infant moves legs in a walking motion when held upright.

Rooting

Turning head and opening mouth in response to touch on the cheek.

Grasping

Closing fingers around an object in the palm.

Sucking

Automatic sucking response when something touches the roof of the mouth.

Motor Milestones

Progression includes rolling over, sitting, crawling, and walking.

Hopi Cradleboards

Despite movement restrictions, infants develop normal motor skills.

West African Stretching Routines

Infant exercises may accelerate motor development.

Dynamic Systems Theory

Interaction of muscle strength, body weight, and environment influences motor development.

Affordances

Opportunities for action provided by the environment.

Reaching & Self-Locomotion

Develops with experience and impacts cognitive development.

Sticky Mittens Experiment

Experience with grasping aids reaching development.

Scale Errors

Infants fail to recognize their body size in relation to objects.

Kitten Experiment

Self-produced movement is necessary for depth perception.

Ramp Experiments

Infants adjust movements when approaching slopes.

Habituation

Infants become less responsive to repeated stimuli.

Statistical Learning

Detecting patterns in the environment.

Conditioning

Classical (associative learning) and instrumental (reinforcement-based learning).

Mobile Experiment

Infants learn to kick to move a mobile.

Observational Learning

Learning through imitation.

Rational Learning

Making predictions based on probabilities.

Active Learning

Infants seek out novel experiences.

Phonemes

Basic units of sound.

Syntax

Rules for sentence formation.

Pragmatics

Social rules governing language use.

Brain-Language Lateralization

Language is primarily processed in the left hemisphere.

Sensitive Period

Best time for acquiring language (e.g., Genie, Nicaraguan Sign Language).

Infant-Directed Speech

Exaggerated speech helps infants learn language.

Bilingualism

Improves cognitive flexibility.

Prosody

Rhythm and melody of speech.

Categorical Perception

Grouping speech sounds into categories.

Perceptual Narrowing

Infants lose the ability to distinguish non-native phonemes.

Babbling

Repetitive sounds that precede speech.

Joint Attention

Shared focus aids language learning.

Overextension

Using words too broadly.

Underextension

Using words too narrowly.

Mutual Exclusivity

Assuming new words refer to unfamiliar objects.

Syntactic Bootstrapping

Using sentence structure to infer meaning.

Case of Rico the Dog

Demonstrated fast mapping of words.

Nativist View (Chomsky)

Humans have innate universal grammar.

Empiricist View

Language is learned through reinforcement.

Connectionism

Language is acquired through pattern recognition.

Category Hierarchies

Superordinate (broad), basic (mid-level), subordinate (specific).

Perceptual Categorization

Grouping objects by appearance.

Naïve Psychology

Infants understand human behavior based on desires, beliefs, and actions.

Theory of Mind

Recognizing that others have different thoughts and beliefs.

False-Belief Tasks

Tests children's understanding of others' incorrect beliefs.

Autism & Theory of Mind

Challenges in understanding others' mental states.

Pretend Play

Play that involves using imagination and creativity.

Object Substitution

Using objects symbolically.

Sociodramatic Play

Enacting roles and narratives.

Imaginary Companions

Linked to creativity and social skills.

Distinguishing Living from Nonliving

Initial reliance on movement as a cue for life.

Inheritance

Recognizing traits passed from parents.

Essentialism

Belief in an inherent 'essence.'

Causality

Infants infer cause-and-effect relationships.

Egocentric Spatial Representations

Space is first understood relative to oneself.

Numerical Equality

Recognizing equivalency between sets.

Infants' Arithmetic

Basic addition/subtraction awareness.

Counting

Understanding that the last number counted represents the total.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Emphasize unconscious motives.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Highlight identity and relationships.

Behaviorism (Watson)

Behavior shaped by external stimuli.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Reinforcement & punishment shape behavior.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Learning through observation.

Bobo Doll Study

Demonstrated imitation of aggressive behavior.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Learning through others' consequences.

Self-Socialization

Children shape their own development.

Role-Taking (Selman)

Perspective-taking develops in stages.

Hostile Attribution Bias

Tendency to misinterpret intentions as hostile.

Entity Theory

Intelligence is fixed.

Incremental Theory

Intelligence grows with effort.

Role of Praise

Effort-based praise fosters resilience.

Ethology

Evolutionary context of behavior.

Imprinting

Early attachment mechanism.

Parental Investment Theory

Evolutionary perspective on parenting.

Bioecological Model

Nested environmental influences on development.

Violence

Links to aggression and desensitization.

Social Media

Impacts self-esteem.

Physical Inactivity

Screen time reduces movement.

Academic Achievement

Mixed effects.

Pornography

Concerns about exposure.

Learning from Informants

Accuracy vs. familiarity.

Puzzle Box Experiment

Children over-imitate compared to chimps.

Intentional vs. Accidental Imitation

Children distinguish between deliberate and accidental actions.