psych exam 2

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Pavlov

founder of classical conditioning

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Shaping

An operant conditioning in which something is learned gradually

observational learning

learning by observing others

insight learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known

learned helplessness

An organism's learning through experience with unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes.

Concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototypes

A mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category

Heuristic

an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a "rule of thumb"

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

type 1 thinking

Thinking that isfast and easy

type 2 thinking

Thinking that is Slow and under your control

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

convergent thinking

using logic and algorithms to solve problems, there is only one answer, doesn't see things from various perspectives

nativist theory

the view that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity and by Noam chomsky

Formalist Theory

We learn language through hearing others speak it

Behavioral Theory

Use of reinforcement methods to change learners' behaviors

social pragmatic theory

Language development stems from a desire to interact socially

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Nine defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existential

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Spearman's general intelligence

General intelligence: if skilled in one area, skilled in others as well. Idea that skills cluster

fluid intelligence

one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

practical intelligence

the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful

intellectual disability

(formerly referred to as mental retardation) a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound.

Giftedness

An extreme of intelligence defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above.

normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

Validity

The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

testing bias

a test that shows provable and systematic differences in the results of people based on group membership

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake one of two types of motivation

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment one of two types of motivation

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

arousal theory

theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation

Malsow's hierarchy of needs

Model which shows certain needs must be met before others

emotion

the feeling that is produced in response to life experiences

emotional regulation

the ability to control when and how emotions are expressed

display rules

cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions

6 universal facial expressions

anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

A theory made up of sensorimotor period, preoperational period, concrete operations, and formal operations expressed by Jean Piaget

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

Making sense of new information, revising existing schemas, or creating new schemas

sensorimotor stage

Stage 1 in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

Stage 2 in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

concrete operational stage

Stage 3 in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

Stage 4 in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

insecure-avoidant attachment

a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

insecure-resistant attachment

classification of parent-child attachment in which the child shows little exploratory behavior when the parent is present, great distress when the parent leaves the room, and ambivalence upon the parent's return

disorganized attachment

a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

authoritative parenting

parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children

neglectful parenting

a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Preconventional

Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking

conventional

Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which moral choices are made according to law or public opinion

postconventional

Kohlberg's stage at which moral choices are made according to personal standards and reason

Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development

Trust v. Mistrust, Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt, Initiative v. Guilt, Industry v. Inferiority, Identity v. Role confusion, Intimacy v. isolation, Generativity v. Stagnation, Integrity v. Despair

Culture

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

Worldview

A person's view of the world, consisting of the set of beliefs on which he bases his life.

dynamic sizing

the ability to simultaneously know the norm for a group and recognize that the norm might not apply to every member of that group

Multiculturalism

A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions

Acculturation

The adoption of cultural traits, such as language, by one group under the influence of another.

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Marginalization

Groups lacking desirable traits are excluded from society. These groups include poor, uneducated, undesirable color and language. These groups will stay on the margin of acceptance by society unless there is social intervention.

Integration

the act of uniting or bringing together, especially people of different races

acculturative stress

stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to the majority culture

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

cultural intelligence

the ability to understand and respond appropriately to different cultural contexts and situations

cultural competence

the ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures

Microaggressions

common, everyday verbal or behavioral indignities and slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, and negative messages about someone's race, gender, sexual orientation, or religion

Sex (biological)

biological characteristics that distinguish females and males, consisting of primary and secondary sex characteristics

Cisgender

individuals whose gender identity matches his or her biological sex

Transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

heterosexual

attracted to the opposite sex

homosexual

attracted to the same sex

Bisexual

attracted to both sexes

LGBTQ

individuals whose sexual orientation is lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered, or who are currently questioning their sexual orientation

Behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

watson

Behaviorism; "Little Albert Study"; aversion therapy