Biology- animalia chapter 9

Micronutrients

vitamins and minerals needed by the body in very small amounts

Macronutrients

, fat, protein and carbohydrate needed by the body in large amounts

Metabolism

the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms that are necessary to maintain life.

Catabolism

the metabolic reactions that breakdown larger molecules into smaller subunits

anabolism

the metabolic reactions that use energy to produce larger molecules from smaller subunits

metabolic rate

the rate at which the body converts stored energy into working energy

ATP

adenosine triphosphate: a substance found in all living tissue that is made up of an adenosine molecule linked to three phosphate groups. Energy for physiological functions like muscle contraction is provided by the breakdown of one phosphate bond (to generate adenosine diphosphate, ADP).

conversions

1 calorie= 1000 calories of 4180J
2.2 lbs=1 kg
1 ft= 12 in
1in = 25 cm

Macromolecules

are very large molecules that are made up of smaller molecules that are linked together.

How is the metabolic rate affected?

Body size: the larger the body the more energy is required to stay alive.
Physical activity: Muscle burns more energy than fat, so physical activity requires more energy.
Sex: males are typically larger in size and have a greater proportion in muscle mass than females
age: decreases within age (lack of physical activity and the loss of muscle mass)
Hereditary factors: some individuals have a naturally high metabolic rate. In these individuals, the chemical energy obtained from food is very quickly converted into other forms of energy.

nutrient

a chemical that must be obtained by an organism from its environment in order to survive; nutrients provide the raw material for growth and repair and may be a source of energy

hormone

a chemical signal or messenger molecule, circulated through the body and used to coordinate cellular functions.

Carbohydrates

- the main source of energy for the human body
-made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
-provide materials to build cell membrane
provide energy for use by cells
(short term-glucose)
(long term-glycogen)
Examples: Glucose, fructose, lactose, maltose, starch,glycogen, cellulose (regulate stool, helps body store water).

the six essential nutrients in order to stay healthy

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals

Monosaccharides

- consists of a single sugar molecule
- most basic
-ring-shaped structures
examples: glucose and fructose (found in fruit)

Disaccharides

- made up of two simple sugars
Example: (sucrose, maltose)

Polysaccharides

- many simple sugar molecules can join together to form large carbohydrates.

Lipids

- store energy reserves for later use by cells
- cushion and insulates the internal organs
examples: fats, oil, wax
- store 2 times more energy per gram than other biological molecules

Proteins

- provide structure and support for blood cells, body tissues, and muscles
- Aid in muscle movements such as contraction
-Acts as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in the cells
- Provide immunity against infection and disease
- Transports ions in cell membranes
examples: Insulin, hemoglobin, antibodies, enzymes
-made up of hundreds of amino acids that are joined by peptide bonds

Nucleic acids

- contains the organism's, genetic information
- Direct the growth of the organism
Examples: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- composed of repeated subunits of sugar, phosphate, and nucleobase.

Vitamin

an organic molecule that the body requires in small amounts as a essential nutrient

Mineral

an element, such as calcium or phosphorus, required by the body in small amounts; plays a role in cell processes and repair

Monomer (unit)

a simple molecule with two or more binding sites

polymer (unit)

are composed of large numbers of linked , small repeat units

Triglyceride

a lipid composed of glycerol and three fatty acids that are bonded together

why do we need water

- made up of 55-60 percent of water
- converts nutrients
- keeps nasal cavity moist
- helps remove waste (cellular respiration)
-helps repair
-helps deliver
-helps joints
-helps nerve cells
-regulation
absorber (shock absorber)

Fat soluble

- vitamins A,D,E and K - stored in the body's healthy tissues for future use
- not easy to eliminate if needed
- vit K is synthesized by special bacteria found in the large intestine
-vit D is formed in the sun when the skin is exposed to sunlight

Water soluble

vitamins B and C cannot be stored in the body and excess quantities are eliminated in urine.

gastrovascular cavity

a simple, sac-like digestive cavity that has only one opening through which food is taken in and wastes are expelled

catabolic

breaking down or loosing muscle mass

gastrointestinal tract

the passageway or tube that extends from the mouth to the anus and in which the process of digestion takes place.

Hydrolysis

the chemical reaction in which water breaks apart macronutrients (lysis) into smaller molecules

anabolyic

building and maintaining muscle mass

dehydration synthesis

the creation of larger molecules from smaller monomers where a water mole cule is released.

enzymes

any chemical produced by cells that facilitates biochemical reactions in the body, such as those involved in digestion and metabolism; all enzymes are proteins.

amylase

an enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates

mucus

it is a protective secretion that lubricates and aids in the swallowing of bolus.

pathogens

infectious microbes that cause sickness and diease

Four stages of digestion

1) Ingestion - taking of nutrients
2) Digestion - breaking down of complex molecules into smaller components by enzymes and by chewing
3) Absorption - transport of digested nutrients into the circulatory system and to the tissues of the body
4) Egestion - removal of waster food materials from the body

catalysis

- are enzymes
- speeds up processes

Saliva

- contains enzymes that help increase the rate of chemical reactions
- mucus is found in saliva, it is a protective secretion that lubricates and aids in swallowing of bolus (ball of food)
-

The breaking of chemical bonds

involves an enzyme ( a biological catalyst that increases the rate of reactions but is not "used up" in the reaction).
the substance that an enzyme combines with is very specific.
the enzyme amylase will only work on breaking starches (polysaccharides) down into disaccharides.

Digestive enzymes

starch is broken down by carbohydrase into simple sugars
Proteins are broken down by protease into amino acids
Lipids are broken down by lipase into Glycerol and fatty acids

acidic pH

the enzyme pepsin in the stomach

Neutral pH

the enzyme amylase in saliva

Basic pH

the enzyme trypsin in the small intestine

Amylase

macromolecule - carbohydrate
product breakdown - a simple sugar

- produced in the salivary glands & functions in the mouth

Lipase

macromolecule - lipid
product of breakdown- glycerol and fatty acids
produced in the pancreas and functions in the small intestine with the help of bile which was produced in the liver but stored in the gallbladder

Pepsin

macromolecule - protein
product of breakdown - amino acid
produced by the stomach glands and functions in the stomach

Trypisn

macromolecule - protein
product of breakdown - amino acids
a trypsinogen is an inactive form of trypsin that is generated in the pancreas and once in the duodenum is converted to active trypsin.

Alimentary canal

- long tubes used for digestion, with separate openings for a mouth and an anus
- under normal circumstances, food moves in only one direction ( two opening one way system)
- allows for the breakdown of food

Peristalsis

a wave ike series of muscular contractions in the esophagus

Gastric Juice ( hormone)

a mixture of hydrochloric acid, salts, enzymes, water, and mucus

chyme

a thick liquid produced in the stomach and made of digested food combined with gastric juice.

Duodenum

- 1st section
- where most enzymes are added and where digestion in the small intestine begins
- contains villi and microvilli which increases the surface area so that in the capillaries all nutrients (except digested fats) can enter the bloodstream

the pancreas

also secrets amylase which will continue the digestion of starch that was started in the saliva

Secretin ( hormone)

- the small intestine secrets secretin which stimulates the liver to make more bile and secrets lipid and protein enzymes
- helps minimize the acid present by stimulating the pancreas to release bicarbonate ions to neutralize the acidic chyme

Jejunum and Ilenum

the 2nd and 3rd section
- absorb nutrients, water, minerals, and vitamins

Large intestine

- consists of cecum, rectum, and anus
- most water could be found in the undigested of indigested material (cellulose) is reabsorbed back into the body

Cecum

the area where the small intestine joins with the large intestine
- creates a blind pouch where processed material from the small intestine is received

appendix

no digestive function

colon

the longest part of the large intestine; ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon

Rectum

the last 20 cm of the large intestine and this is the structure that holds waste which will be eliminated from the body through the anus.

Diarrhea

loose or watery feces

feces

undigested material that is eliminated as waste from the body

egestion

the removal of waster food materials from the body

anus

the opening at the lower end of the large intestine which waste is eliminated

passive transport

the movement of materials across the cell membrane without using any of the cell's energy

active transport

the transportation of materials through the cell membrane with using cell energy

facilitated diffusion

the diffusion of molecule across a cell membrane via a transport protein

concentration gradient

the difference in the number of molecules or ions of a substance in a given volume between adjoining areas

serosa

holds the stomach in place & secrets fluid

esophagus

an organ consisting of a muscular tube that passes food from the pharynx to the stomach

peristalsis

the rhythmic involuntary wave-like contractions of the smooth muscles of the gastrointestinal tract

submucosa

a layer of connective tissue that contains networks of nerves and blood vessels

muscularis

consists of the longitude, circular and oblique muscles

Rugae

ridges that increase the surface area of the stomach and stretch out to increase stomach volume when the stomach is full.

gastroesophageal sphincter

closes off the esophagus from the stomach. If the sphincter does not close properly, food and liquid can move backward into the esophagus and cause heartburn and other symptoms known as gastroesophageal disease (GERD).

pyloric sphincter

serves as a kind of gateway between the stomach and the small intestine. It allows the contents of the stomach to pass into the small intestine. It also prevents partially digested food and digestive juices from reentering the stomach.