Genetics 3250 Elliot Altman Exam 1

Four main types of large molecules cells contain

Nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids

The central dogma

DNA -> RNA -> Protein

catabolic enzymes

-Involved in the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones during metabolism

-Provide energy for the activities of the cell

Anabolic enzymes

-Involved in the synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones during metabolism

-Provide components for the construction of the cell

Nitrogenous bases

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine

How does genetic code direct the order of amino acids

Using a three base code for each amino acid

Usual start codon

ATG

Usual stop or nonsense codons

TAA TAG TGA

do male or female genome have more DNA

Female XX

transcription

The genetic information in DNA is copied into a nucleotide sequence of ribonucleic acid

Translation

The nucleotide sequence in RNA provides the information to make the amino acid sequence of a protein

How can traits manifest themselves?

Morphologically, physiologically, behaviorally

Hypothesis testing, or the scientific method

Experimentation using a hypothesis

Discovery based science

Experimentation without a hypothesis

Gender identity

Reflects how an individual perceives themselves

Sex

Genetic designation based on either genotype XX equals female XY equals male

Sexual orientation

Used to describe who a person is sexually attracted to

Cell division, a.k.a. mitosis

Yields two diploid cells that are both identical to the parent cell. Typical of ordinary tissue growth.

Sexual reproduction, a.k.a. meiosis

Yields for gamma cells that contain the chromosomes of the parent cell. Production of plant spores and gametes.

Haploid n

Only contain a single chromosome of each type

Diploid 2n

Contain two chromosomes of each type

Eukaryotes

Membrane, bound, nucleus, membrane, bound, organelles, reproduce sexually

Prokaryotes

No membrane bound nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, reproduce asexually

Prokaryotic haploid chromosomes

Replicated and then distributed to the two identical haploid daughter cells when cell division occurs

In what phase of mitosis or meiosis are chromosomes duplicated

The S phase of interphase

Phases of interphase

G1, S, G2

Phases of mitosis

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Interphase

The mitotic spindle apparatus, organizes and swords the chromosomes. It is formed from two micro, tubular, organizing centers or centrism, one for each type of the daughter cells.

What are two copies of the chromosome called?

sister chromatids

Prophase

The two centrosomes move apart, which will begin to separate the sister chromatids

Prometaphase

The century homes move to the opposite end of the cell and establish two spindle poles, one for each daughter cell.

Metaphase

The chromatids are aligned along the metaphase plate

Anaphase

The chromosome pair separate and move to opposite ends or poles of the cell

Telophase

The chromosomes reached their respective polls and decondition. Two nuclei are formed.

Cytokinesis

The two nuclei are segregated into two daughter cells

How many divisions does meiosis involve?

2; meiosis I and meiosis II

Five stages of prophase in meiosis

leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis

What occurs in prophase?

Crossovers between homologous chromosomes, and event that is thought to be crucial for the proper segregation of the chromosomes into gametes

Where does meiosis occur in sporophytes

Anthers and ovaries

Anthers

Produce the male gametophyte

Ovaries

Produce the female gametophyte

What does the chromosome theory of inheritance to allow us to see?

The relationship between Mendel's laws and chromosome transmission

Sex determination in mammals

The X - Y system, XY is male and XX is female

Sex determination in insects

The X - zero system, X zero or X is male, XX is female

Sex link traits manifest themselves differently in males

Males only have a single ex chromosome, where females have 2X chromosomes

Blending hypothesis of inheritance

Hereditary traits were malleable, and both parents contributed equally to the offspring which caused a blended traits over time

Who does prove the blending hypothesis of inheritance?

Mendel

Self fertilization

Male pollen and female eggs are derived from the same plant

Cross fertilization

Male pollen and female eggs are derived from two different different plants

Parental

P Generation

F1

First filial generation from a parental cross

F2

Second filial generation from an F1 cross

Where are male gametes of a plant produced?

Within the pollen grains that form the anthers

Where are female gametes produced in a plant

Within the ovules that form in the ovaries

The law of segregation

The two copies of a gene segregate from each other during the process that gives rise to gamete. Each game carries one copy of a given gene. A gamete carries a single allele of a given gene

The law of independent assortment

Jeans for different traits are sorted separately from one another in the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the inheritance of another

The law of dominance

A heterozygote organism with alternate forms of a gene will express the form that is dominant

Dominant trait

Capital letter

Recessive trait

Lower case letter

Genotype

The genetic composition of an individual

Phenotype

The observable traits of an organism

Phenotype are predictable based on

Genotype

Alleles

Different versions of the same gene

Homozygous

An individual with two identical alleles

Heterozygous

An individual with two different alleles

Loss of function mutation

Defective copies of genes that are inherited and recessive matter

Genes that play a role in disease may exist as

A non-disease causing a encodes, a functionally, normal protein, or a mutant allele that causes a disease

Diseases that follow a simple pattern of inheritance can be

Dominant or recessive

probability

Number of times an event occurs/the total number of events

The product rule

The probability that two are more independent event will occur is equal to the product of the respective probabilities

Binomial expansion equation

Chi-square test

Used to test hypothesis about whether your data is as expected

Percent Error

Simple mendelian inheritance

Inheritance of a Leo set obey Mendel's laws and follow us tricked dominant/recessive relationship

Incomplete penetrance

In the case of dominant traits, this pattern occurs when a dominant phenotype is not expressed, even though an individual carries a dominant allele.

Incomplete dominance

This pattern occurs when the heterozygote has a phenotype that is intermediate between either corresponding homozygote. Example pink flowers from red and white flowers. Yield an intermediate trait

Over dominance

This pattern occurs when the heterozygote has a trait that confers a greater level of reproductive success than either homozygote. Heterozygote advantage cells may have increased resistant to infection by microorganisms, they produce some more forms of protein divers with enhanced function, they may produce proteins that function under a wide range of conditions.

Codominance

This pattern occurs when the heterozygous expresses both allele simultaneously without forming intermediate. Example are human blood types.

X-linked

This pattern involves the inheritance of genes that are located on the X chromosome

Sex influenced inheritance

Refers to the effect of sex on the phenotype of the individual. Some alleles are recessive in one sex and dominant in the opposite.

Sex Limited inheritance

A trait occurs in only one of the two sexes. Example is breast development in animals.

lethal alleles

Has the potential of causing the death of an organism. Most commonly loss of function alleles.

Wild type alleles

Prevalent alleles in a population

Mutant Alleles

Alleles that have been altered by mutation

Gain of function

Protein encoded by the mutant gene is changed so it gains a new or abnormal function

Dominant negative

Protein encoded by the mutant gene acts antagonistically to normal protein

Haploinsufficiency

Mutant is loss of function, and the protein encoded does not function

What is the immune system produce against foreign antigens

Antibodies

What does the immune system not produce antibodies against?

Self antigens that are normal proteins produced by the body

What blood type are universal recipient?

A

What blood type are universal donors?

O

Pleiotropy

Multiple effects of a single gene on the phenotype of an organism

Epistasis

And inheritance pattern in which the alleles of one gene mask the typic effects of the alleles of a different

Complementation

A phenomenon in which two parents that express the same or similar recessive phenotypes produce offspring with a type phenotype

Gene modify effect

A phenomenon in which in allele of one gene modifies the phenotypic outcome of the alleles of a different gene

Gene Redundancy

A pattern in which the loss of function in a single gene has no phenotypic effect, but the loss of the function of two genes has an effect

genes that have a Mendelian inheritance pattern conform to four rules

Expression of the genes in the offspring directly influences their trait, genes are passed an altered from generation to generation, genes obey Mendel's law of segregation, when crosses involve more than one gene the genes obey Mendel law of independent assortment

Maternal effect

An inheritance pattern for certain nuclear genes in which the genotype of the mother directly determines the phenotype of her offspring.

Epigenetic inheritance

A pattern in which a modification occurs to a nuclear gene or chromosome that alters gene expression. Expression is not permanently changed over generations. Forms of this are dosage, compensation, and genomic imprinting.

Purpose of dosage compensation

To offset differences in the number of active sex chromosomes