Studied by 4 people
what is osmolarity?
the amount of solute particals in one kg of water
the urinary bladder has a lot of ____ muscle involved
smooth
what are the 3 layers of the bladder wall
mucosa, muscular, and fibrous adventitia
what is the urinary bladders storage capacity?
up to 500-1000ml
Inward pressure _____ filtrate formation
inhibits
outward pressure ____ filrate formation
promotes
what happens during tubular secretion?
transfer of materials from capillaries to the renal tubular lumen. one step in the urine process
what happens during the tubular reabsorption process
kidsneys reabsorb useful substances like glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes.
what happens during glomerular filration
the first step in making urine. the process in which kidneys use to filter excess fluid.
what are the three key processes of the kidney?
glomerular filtration
tubular reabsorption
tubular secretion
what does the ureters do?
transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
what does propulsion mean?
swallowing and peristalis
what is the relationship between blood pressure and blood volume?
they are inversely porpotioned- as one goes up the other goes down.
where do many of our digestive enzymes come from?
Pancreas
what is within the juice of the pancreas?
Electroclytes -proteases (breaks proteins) -Amylae -Lipase -nuclease
How long is the small intestine?
7-13 feet
what is small about the small intestine?
the diamter of its lumen
what are the subdivisions of the small intestine?
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
what modifications in the small intestine help in absorption?
Circular folds, villi, microvilli
Where is bile produced?
liver
Where is bile stored?
gallbladder
what happens after a meal?
segmentation ( moving food through intestines and mixes it)
what happens between meal?
peristalis
what are the unique features of the large intestines?
tenaie coli, haustra, epiploic appedages.
what are the subdivisions of the larg intestine?
Cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, anal canal.
what are the parts if the colon?
Ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
What are the two sphincters of the anal canal?
Internal- smooth muscle External- skeletal muscle
What is appendicitis?
inflammation of appendix usually from a blockage of feces.
what are the metabolic functions of the bacteria in the intestines?
fermentation and vitamin synthesis
how long does the digestive process take?
12-14 hours
what is the major function of the large intestine?
propel feces
what does the large intestine reclaim?
vitamins, water, electrolytes (Na and Cl)
what is enzyme hydrolysis
using water to break something
lipids are ______ absorbed
passively
polar molecules require _____ transport
active
what 3 monosacharydes can be absorbed?
Glactose, glucose, frucose
what is the order of protein digestion?
Proteins → large polypeptides → small polypeptides → amino acids
Energy is measured as
Kilocalories (kCal)
nonessential nutrients can be synthesized by the _____
the liver
what is the difference between essential and nonessential nutrients
both are needed but essential nutrients CANNOT be made within the body.
what are examples of simple carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
what are examples of complex carbohydrates
Starches or polysaccharides or oligosaccharide
fiber
what are monosaccharides made of?
glucose, fructose, galactose
what are disaccharides made from?
maltose, sucrose, lactose,
what are oligosaccharides made from?
raffinose, stachyose,
what are polysaccharides made from?
starch, glycogen, cellulose
glucose that is not used becomes _____
Fat
why are carbohydrates essential?
they contain essential sugars that cannot be made within the body
what is the glycemic index?
a index that ranks carbs from 0-100
how are the sugars ranked in the glycemic index?
on how quickly blood sugar levels are raised
what is glycemic load?
degree that is going to influence blood sugar.
lipids are primarily ____
Triglycerides \n • Saturated & unsaturated
what are the dietary sources of lipids?
Triglycerides
chloesterol
fatty acid synthesis
what are the two fatty acids the liver cannot synthesis
omega 3 and 6 ( cannot be made in body)
what are the uses of lipids?
Adipose tissue \n • Phospholipids \n • Bile salts & steroid hormones \n • Fuel of hepatocytes & skeletal muscle \n • Fat-soluble vitamin absorption
what is the dietary requirement for lipids?
20-35% daily intake (less than 10% of fat intake should be saturated)
do we need chloesterol in our diet?
no so keep it low in the diet
what are the dietary sources of protein?
Complete proteins (animal products) = 8 essential amino acids \n • Legumes, nuts + cereals = Incomplete proteins \n • Legumes + cereal grains = 8 Essential amino acids
what are the uses of proteins In the body?
Structural material \n • Functional molecules \n • Three deterministic factors \n • All-or-none rule \n • Adequacy of caloric intake \n • Hormonal control
what are the 7 major minerals
Ca P K Na S Cl Mg
what are the two types of vitamins?
water-soluble and fat-soluble
what are some examples of water-soluble vitamins
B complex and C, B12
how is toxic overload of minerals prevented?
by maintaining secretion rate
what do Ca P and Mg do
help with bone strength
what does Fe do
hemoglobin
what does Iodine do?
produces thyroid hormones
what is the defininition of metablolism?
Sum of all chemical reactions in the body
what is anabolism
the synthesis of small molecules to big ones
what is catabolism
the “breakdown” breaking complex structures to simple ones. often uses water
what are the two mechanisms used to make ATP
subsrate level phosyphorylation
ocidative phosphorylation
what mechanism produces the most ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation
what is cellular respiration?
catabolic breakdown of food
what is the goal of cellular respiration?
trap chemical energy in the form of ATP for now or late
what ar ethe 3 stages of phosphorylation
1- digestion and transport to tissues
2- anabolism or catabolism (synthesis)
3- in mitochondria
what are redox reactions?
oxidized things are going to loose electrons and energy
what is dehydrogenease?
catlyze hydrogen or remove hydrogen from an atom
what are two of the major electron acceptors
NAD and FAD
what are the 3 phases of glycolysis
phase 1 - sugar activation ( glucose is phosphorated by ATP)
phase 2 - sugar cleavage ( breaking molecule in half)
phase 3 - sugar oxidation and ATP formation ( 4 ATP is made)
What does carbohydrate metabolism produce?
Water, carbon dioxide, 32 ATP, heat
what are the products of glycolysis
2 pyretic acids
2 reduced NAD
net gain of 2 ATP
what are the products of the citric acid / Krebs cycle?
2 CO2
three NADH
one FADH2
one moleulce of ATP or GTP
one regenerated oxaloaxetate
each molecule of glucose producess __ acids per glucose yeild
2 pyruvic acids
what is phase one of oxidative phosphorylation?
Electron Transport Chain
what is phase 2 of oxidative phosphorylation?
chemiosmosis
why is glycolysis?
Converts glucose to pyruvic acid
what is glycogenesis?
glycogen synthesis
what is glycogenolysis?
breaking glycogen into glucose
what is gluconeogenesis?
Neo = New
Creation of new glucose from no carb sources
what does lipoprotein mean?
fat protein
any excess glucose thats in the blood is stored in ____
muscles and fatwha
what using triglycerides as a primary fuel
liver and skeletal muscle
elevated blood glucose and amino acids stimulate what?
Insulin
what two organs do not need insulin?
brain and liver
what is goal of the postabsorptive state?
maintain glucose between meals
what are the sources of glucose during the postabsorptive state?
glycogenolysis in liver (first reserve)
glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle (second reserve)
lipolysis ( third reserve fat breakdown)
catabolism ( fourth reserve, breaking down protein= starvation)
what is glucose sparing
“rationing glucose”. under extreme limitation the body will limit where the stored glucose is going to make sure the brain gets some
when starving the brain uses =
when starving the body uses =
glucose
keytones
how is the postabsorptive state stimulated
reduced insulin release and a drop in blood glucose levels drop
cholesterol is ____ an energy source
not
chloesterol is a ____ protein
liver
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