A&P 1 - Unit 2 Study Guide

Define cytology (slide 2) (Ch. 4)

The study of cells

Define microscopy (slide 2) (Ch. 4)

The use of a microscope to view small-scale structures that can not be seen with the naked eye.

Describe magnification range of light microscopy... 2D or 3D images produced? (slide 3) (Ch.4)

Light microscope (LM):

• 40x-1000x (MR)

• Produces 2D images

Describe maximum magnification of electron microscopy. Which type (TEM; SEM) produces 2D images? 3D images? (slide 3) … can you identify each type on slide 4? (Ch. 4)

Electron microscope (EM): (up to 50,000x):

• Beam of electrons illuminates specimen

• Greater magnification and resolution than light microscope

Transmission electron microscope (TEM):

• Directs an electron beam through thin-cut sections; gets 2-D images

Scanning electron microscope (SEM):

• Directs an election beam across surface of specimen; gets 3-D images

Describe the plasma membrane (slide 7) (Ch. 4)

Forms the outer limiting barrier that separates the internal contents of the cell from the interstitial fluid (fluid that surrounds the cell)

Describe the nucleus. What important material does it contain? (slide 7) (Ch. 4)

• Largest structure within the cell, surrounded by the nuclear envelope. Contains genetic material (DNA)

List the contents of the cytoplasm. (slide 8) (Ch. 4)

Cytosol, organelles, inclusions

Compare and contrast membrane-bound and non-membrane-bound organelles. (slides 10-11) (Ch. 4)

Membrane- bound organelles: Ex: Mitochondrea

• Enclosed by membrane similar to the plasma membrane.

• Organelles: Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria

• Vesicles: temporary membrane-bound structures formed from the ER, Golgi apparatus, or plasma membrane “cis-face & trans face”

Non-membrane-bound Organelles:

• Organelles not enclosed in a membrane

• These structures are typically composed of protein

• Organelles: Ribosomes (Free or bound), centrosome, proteasomes, and the cytoskeleton

Define inclusions (slide 12) (Ch. 4)

aggregates (clusters) of a single type of molecule

List the three general cell functions (slide 14) (Ch. 4)

1) Maintain integrity and shape of the cell

2) Obtain Nutrients and form Chemical building blocks

3) Dispose of Wastes

List the three types of lipids found in the plasma membrane (slide 15) (Ch. 4)

• Phospholipids

• Cholesterol

• Glycolipids

Describe the structure of a phospholipid (slide 16) (Ch. 4)

• “Balloon with two tails”

• Polar and hydrophilic “head”; two nonpolar and hydrophobic “tails”

• Form two parallel sheets of molecules lying tail to tail

• Hydrophobic tails form internal environment of membrane

• Hydrophilic polar heads directed outward

Describe the function of cholesterol (slide 17) (Ch. 4)

• Strengthens plasma membrane

• Stabilizes plasma membrane against temperature extremes

Know where in/on the cell glycolipids are located. (slide 17) (Ch. 4)

• Lipids with attached carbohydrate groups “in”

• Located on outer phospholipid region only “on”

• Helps form glycocalyx

Compare and contrast the two types of structural proteins (slide 19-20) (Ch. 4)

Integral proteins:

• Embedded within and extends completely across the phospholipid bilayer

• Has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic components

  • Hydrophobic Components – interact with the hydrophobic tails of the PM

  • Hydrophilic Components – exposed to the aqueous environments on either side of the PM.

• Many integral proteins are glycoproteins... these contribute to the glycocalyx

Peripheral proteins:

• Not embedded within the PM

• Attached loosely to the inside or outside of the PM

• Often anchored to the exposed portions of an integral protein

Describe transport proteins, identify markers, enzymes, and cell-adhesion proteins. (slide 21-22) (Ch. 4)

Transport Proteins:

• Regulate movement of substances across the PM

Identity Markers:

• Communicate to other cells that they belong to the body.

Enzymes:

• May be attached to the internal or external surface of a cell for catalyzing chemical reactions.

Cell-adhesion proteins:

• Allow cell-to-cell attachment.

Compare and contrast active and passive transport (slide 25) (Ch. 4)

Active Transport - a solute or ions is moved up (rather than down) its concentration gradient, require cellular energy (lower to higher)

Passive Transport - do not require cellular energy, rely on kinetic energy of ions and molecules as each move down its concentration gradient. (higher to lower)

List the types of channels found in channel-mediated diffusion… which one is always open? Which one is usually closed? (slide 32) (Ch. 4)

Leak channels: “Leak”

• Continuously open

Gated channels: “Gate”

• Usually closed

Carrier proteins are uniporters. What does that mean? (Slide 34) (Ch. 4)

Uniporter - Carrier transporting only one substance “one type of ion”

Compare and contrast primary active transport and secondary active transport. (slide 48 & 52) (Ch. 4)

Primary active transport:

• Uses energy directly from breakdown of ATP

• Phosphorylation of carrier occurs

• Breakdown of ATP results in phosphate group added to transport protein

• Changes protein’s shape and results in movement of substance across the membrane

Secondary active transport:

• Moves substance against concentration gradient

• Uses energy from movement of second substance down its gradient

• Kinetic energy providing “power” to pump other substance

• Na+ moves down concentration gradient

• Dependent on Na+/K+ pumps for energy

List the two types of pumps that are regulated by primary active transport (slide 49-52) (Ch. 4)

• Sodium-potassium (Na+/K+) pump (Exchange pump)

• Calcium Pump (Ca2+ Pump)

Symporters; antiporters. Which one moves two substances in the same direction? Which one moves substances in opposite directions? (slide 53-54) (Ch. 4)

Symporters - two substances moved in same direction

Antiporters - two substances moved in opposite directions

List the steps of exocytosis. (slide 57) (Ch. 4)

1) Vesicle nears plasma membrane

2) Vesicle membrane fuses with plasma membrane

3) Plasma membrane opens to outside of cell

4) Release of vesicle contents into the interstitial fluid and integration of vesicle membrane components into plasma membrane.

Between phagocytosis and pinocytosis, which one engulfs particles? Which one internalizes droplets? (slide 59-62) (Ch. 4)

Phagocytosis: “cellular eating”

• a cell engulfs a large particle external to cell

Pinocytosis: “cellular drinking”

• Internalization of droplets of interstitial fluid containing dissolved solutes

What is the resting membrane potential? (Hint: first three bullet points on slide 64) (Ch. 4)

• Resting membrane potential (RMP) — potential when a cell is at rest

An electrochemical gradient

• “Na+/ K+” are important ions in the resting membrane potential

Describe the importance of the glycocalyx (slide 70) (Ch. 4)

• Contact through the glycocalyx lets body cells communicate with immune system cells that they both belong to the body

• unhealthy or foreign cells exhibit a different pattern of sugars on the glycocalyx

• The sperm cell is able to bind to the egg cell because of the unique glycocalyx

List the functions of the smooth ER (slide 77) (Ch. 4)

• Synthesis, transport and storage of different types of lipids

• Carbohydrate synthesis (glycogen synthesis and breakdown in liver cells

• Detoxification of drugs, alcohol, and poisons

List the functions of the Golgi body. (slide 79) (Ch. 4)

• Modify, package, sort proteins (and proteoglycans) that are made by the rough ER and fuse the cis-face to the trans-face.

Lysosomes: define autophagy and autolysis (slide 82) (Ch. 4)

Autophagy “eat”- Digest molecular structures of damaged organelles

Autolysis “breaking down”- Breaks down cellular components after cell death

Lysosomes is the organelle that preforms both

List the functions of the mitochondria (slide 86) (Ch. 4)

• Engage in aerobic cellular respiration

• Complete the digestion of glucose and other fuel molecules such as fatty acids

• Synthesizes ATP molecules

• The number of mitochondria can increase in the cell if there is a high demand for ATP

What is the main function of the ribosomes? (slide 88) (Ch. 4)

• Composed of a large subunit and a small subunit

• Bound ribosomes are attached to the rough ER

• Free ribosomes are floating free in the cytosol

• Ribosomes engage in protein synthesis

List the three protein molecules that form the cytoskeleton (slide 93) (Ch. 4)

Microfilaments - split two daughter cells by cytokinesis

Microtubules - separates chromosomes during cell division

Intermediate filaments- protein composition varies based on cell type

List the function of cilia, flagella, microvilli (slide 95) (Ch. 4)

Cilia - Hair-like projections that move substances along cell surface

Flagella - Longer and wider than cilia; propels entire cell

Microvilli - Extensions of plasma membrane that increase surface area

List the function of tight junctions (slide 97), hemidesmosomes (slide 98), and gap junctions (slide 99) (Ch. 4)

Tight junctions:

• Seal off the intracellular space and prevent substances from passing unregulated between epithelial cells. (This keeps urine from leaking out of the urinary bladder)

• Prevent the mixing of membrane proteins and lipids on either side of the junctions, maintaining the polarity of the epithelium

Hemidesmosomes:

• anchor basal layer of cells of epidermis to underlying components

Gap junctions:

• Gap junctions provide a passageway for substances to move between adjacent cells.

Define transcription (slide 101) (Ch. 4)

Transcription - occurs within the nucleus by the RNA polymerase enzyme and is a formation of an RNA molecule from ribonucleotides using DNA as a template

Define translation (slide 101) (Ch. 4)

Translation - occurs within the cytoplasm by ribosomes and is the formation of a specific protein from amino acids as directed by the RNA molecule.

List the three types of RNA produced during transcription and the three events of transcription (slide 103) (Ch. 4)

Three types of RNA produced during transcription:

• Messenger RNA (mRNA)

• Transfer RNA (tRNA)

• Ribosomal (rRNA)

Three events of transcription:

• Initiation

• Elongation

• Termination

Describe the initiation, elongation, and termination steps of transcription (slide 104-109) (Ch. 4)

Initiation- “Start”

• The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a specific region of the DNA called the promoter

• The DNA strands unwind and separate at the region of interest.

• The RNA polymerase starts synthesizing the mRNA strand from the DNA template.

Elongation-

• RNA polymerase moves along the template strand of the DNA, synthesizing complementary RNA strand

• It reads the DNA from 3’ to 5’ and builds the mRNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction

• As the RNA polymerase moved, the DNA rewinds behind it

Termination- “End or finish”

• Once RNA polymerase reaches a specific sequence of bases known as the terminator, transcription stops.

• The newly synthesized mRNA strand is released.

Describe the initiation, elongation, and termination steps of translation (slide 117-120) (Ch. 4)

Initiation:

• The mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunit

• The start codon (AUG) of the mRNA signals the beginning of protein synthesis.

• The tRNA with the complementary anticodon (UAC) binds to the start codon, bringing in the first amino acid (methionine)

• The large ribosomal subunit then joins, forming a complete ribosome.

Elongation:

• The ribosome moves along the mRNA, reading the codons (three nucleotide bases that specify an amino acid).

• tRNA molecules with complementary anticodons bring the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome.

• The ribosomes forms peptides bonds between the amino acids, creating a growing polypeptide chain.

• The ribosomes continues to move along the mRNA, adding amino acids to the chain.

Termination:

• When the ribosomes reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA), translation stops.

• The polypeptide chain is released, and the ribosomal subunits disassemble.

Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis (slide 122) (Ch. 4)

Mitosis:

• Cell division that occurs in somatic cells (all cells other than sex cells)

Meiosis:

• Cell division in sex cells (cells that give rise to sperm or oocytes)

How long does interphase last? What are the phases involved in interphase? (124-125) (Ch. 4)

Interphase:

• Lasts approximately 23 hours

Phases involved:

• G1 phase: Growth and preparation for DNA replication

• S phase: DNA replication

• G2 phase: Growth and preparation for division of DNA

How long does the mitotic phase last? List/order the steps involved (hint: PMAT) (slide 125 and slide 131) (Ch. 4)

Mitotic (M) phase:

last about 1 hour

Steps:

1) Prophase

2) Metaphase

3) Anaphase

4) Telophase

List and describe the characteristics of epithelial tissue (slide 3-7) (Ch. 5)

Cellularity: Epithelial tissue is composed almost entirely of tightly packed cells. Minimal amount of extracellular matrix

Polarity (Apical, lateral, and basal surface):

• Apical surface - exposed to external environment or internal body space. May have microvilli or cilia

• Lateral surface- may contain membrane junctions

• Basal surface- Fixed (or deep) surface that is attached to a basement membrane with underlying connective tissue

Attachment to basement membrane: Epithelial tissue is bound at its basal surface to a thin basement membrane.

Avascularity: Lack blood vessels

Extensive innervation: Epithelial are richly innervated (supplied with nerves) to detect changes in the environment at that body or region.

List and describe the functions of epithelial tissue (slide 8-10) (Ch. 5)

• Physical protection: protect internal and external surfaces

• Selective permeability: All substances that enter or leave the body must pass through an epithelium

• Secretions: Some epithelial cells are specialized to produce and release secretions. These cells form glands.

• Sensations: Epithelial tissue are innervated by sensory nerve endings to detect or respond to a stimulus.

List the functions and locations of the following epithelial tissues (use the function and locations listed on the images like slide 17) (Ch. 5)

A. Simple Squamous Epithelium:

Function: Thinnest possible barrier to allow for rapid diffusion and filtration; secretion in serous membranes

Location: Air sacs in lungs (alveoli); lining of blood vessels and lymph vessels (endothelium; serous membranes of body cavities (mesothelium)

B. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:

Function: Absorption and secretion; forms secretory tissue of most glands and small ducts

Location: Lining of kidney tubules; thyroid gland follicles; surface of ovary; secretory regions and ducts of most exocrine glands.

C. Nonciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium:

Function: Absorption and secretion

Location: Lining of most of gastrointestinal (digestive) tract (Stomach, small intestine, and large intestine)

D. Ciliated Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium:

Function: Secretion of mucin and movement of mucus along apical surface of epithelium by cilia; oocyte movement through uterine tube

Location: Lining of the largest bronchioles (air passageways) of lung and the uterine tubes

E. Transitional Epithelium:

Function: Protection; secretion of mucin and movement of mucus along apical surface of epithelium by cilia

Location: Lining of the larger airways of respiratory tract, including nasal cavity, part of pharynx, parts of larynx, trachea, and bronchi

Compare and contrast the differences of keratinized and nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. (slide 31 and slide 33) (Ch. 5)

Keratinized: “Dead cells”

• Superficial layers of dead cells

• Cells lack nuclei, filled with keratin

• Cells in basal region migrate toward apical surface

• Fill with keratin and die

Nonkeratinized: “Alive cells”

• All cells alive

• Kept moist with secretions (Ex. saliva, mucus)

• Lack keratin, protective protein

• Microscopically visible cell nuclei

List the types of secretions that glands may produce. (slide 41) (Ch. 5)

• Mucin

• ions

• hormones

• enzymes

• Urea

Describe how endocrine glands secrete their products. (slide 42) (Ch. 5)

Lack glands and secrete their products (hormones) into the blood for transport through the body

Compare and contrast unicellular and multicellular exocrine glands (slide 44) (Ch. 5)

Unicellular exocrine glands:

• Typically do not contain a duct.

• Located close to the surface of the epithelium in which they reside.

• Most common type: Goblet cell.

Multicellular exocrine glands:

• Contain numerous cells.

• Consist of acini, which are clusters of cells that produce secretion.

• Typically surrounded by a fibrous capsule, with septa (extensions of the capsule) partitioning the gland into lobes.

For merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine glands, explain what happens to the cell after the secretion has been produced. (slide 47-49) (Ch. 5)

Merocrine: Ex: “Tears, sweat, salivary glands”

Cell integrity: The glandular cells remain intact and are not damaged by producing the secretion.

Secretion Process: Secretions are packaged into secretory vesicles and released through exocytosis

Apocrine: Ex: “mammary glands”

Cell repair: The cell repairs itself to repeat its secretory activity.

Secretion Process: The cell’s apical portion pinches off, releasing cytoplasmic content.

Holocrine: Ex: “oil-producing” in skin

Cell Replacement: The entire cell disintegrates; The ruptured, dead cells are continuously replaced by other epithelial cells.

Secretion Process: Holocrine secretions are viscous mixtures of cell products and the product the cell produced prior to disintegration.

Describe mesenchymal cells, fixed macrophages, and wandering cells. (slide 52-53) (Ch. 5)

Mesenchymal cells:

• Embryonic stem cell within CT.

Fixed macrophages:

• Large, irregular-shaped cells that derive from a type of leukocyte (White blood cell)

Wandering cells:

• Components of the immune system that continuously move throughout CT.

List the three types of protein fibers (slide 54) (Ch. 5)

• Collagen fibers

• Reticular fibers

• Elastic fibers

List the two features of connective tissue that form the extracellular matrix (slide 58) (Ch. 5)

1) Ground Substance: Molecular material produced by connective tissue cells.

2) Protein Fibers: Present within the ground substance.

List the functions of connective tissue (slide 60) (Ch. 5)

(Some connective tissues types may perform some of these functions)

• Physical protection

• Support and structural framework

• Binding of structures

• Storage

• Transport

• Immune protection

List the two types of embryonic tissue… which of these tissue types forms all other connective tissue? (slide 61-62) (Ch. 5)

• Mesenchyme: Forms all other connective tissues

• Mucous CT

List the functions and locations of the following epithelial tissues (use the function and locations listed on the images like in slide 17) (Ch. 5)

A. Dense regular CT:

Function: Attaches bone to bone (most ligaments) as well as muscle to bone (tendons); resists stress applied in one direction

Location: Tendons (attach muscle to bone); ligaments (typically attach bone to bone)

B. Elastic CT:

Function: Allows for stretching and recoil

Location: Walls of elastic, trachea, vocal cords

C. Hyaline Cartilage:

Function: Provides support; forms most of fetal skeleton

Location: Tip of the nose; trachea; bronchi; most of larynx, costal cartialge; both the epiphyseal (growth) plates and articular ends of long bones; most of fetal skeleton

D. Fibrocartilage:

Function: Weight-bearing cartilage that resist compression; acts as shock absorber in some joints

Location: Intervertrbral discs; pubic symphysis; menisei of knee joints

E. Elastic Cartilage:

Function: Maintains shape while permitting extensive flexiblity

Location: External ear; epiglottis of larynx

List the two types of bone CT (slide 78) (Ch. 5)

List the functions of bone (slide 79) (Ch. 5)

Bone functions

• Levers for movement

• Supports tissues

• Protects vital organs

• Stores minerals

List the four components of blood CT (slide 81) (Ch. 5)

List the three types of muscle tissue. (slide 85) (Ch. 5)

What is skeletal muscle primarily responsible for? is it voluntary or involuntary? (slide 86) (Ch. 5)

How are cardiac muscle cells connected? is cardiac muscle voluntary or involuntary? (slide 88) (Ch. 5)

What are the specialized cells that initiate the contraction of the heart? (slide 88) (Ch. 5)

is smooth muscle tissue voluntary or involuntary? Can smooth muscle tissue go through cell division? (Slide 90) (Ch. 5)

What are the individual cells of nervous tissue called? (slide 92) (Ch. 5)

List the four structures a neuron has. What are the functions of each? (slides 95-96) (Ch. 5)

List the four types of body membranes. (slide 101) (Ch. 5)

Compare and contrast hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and atrophy (slide 107) (Ch. 5)

Define metaplasia and dysplasia (slide 108-109) (Ch. 5)

Metaplasia -

Dysplasia -

Compare and contrast benign and malignant neoplasms (slide 110) (Ch. 5)

Define necrosis (slide 112) (Ch .5)

Necrosis -

Compare and contrast dry gangrene and gas gangrene (slide 113-116) (Ch. 5)

Know the body’s largest organ. (slide 1) (Ch. 6)

Define epidermis (slide 4) (Ch. 6)

Be able to order the layers of the epidermis from deep to superficial. (slide 4) (Ch. 6)

List the cell types that occupy the stratum basale. (slide 6) (Ch .6)

Describe how keratinocytes get their name. (slide 7) (Ch. 6)

Describe the function of melanocytes. (slide 9)

Describe the function of tactile cells. (slide 11) (Ch. 6)

Describe the function of epidermal dendritic cells. (slide 13) (Ch. 6)

Describe the composition of the granular layer. (slide 15) (Ch. 6)

Describe what type of skin the stratum lucidum is found. (slide 17) (Ch. 6)

Know how long individual keratinocytes are in the integument before they are lost. (slide 19) (Ch. 6)

Compare and contrast the locations of thick and thin skin. (slide 23) (Ch.6)

Describe how skin color gets its color. (slide 24) (Ch. 6)

Define hemoglobin, melanin, and carotene. (slide 24) (Ch. 6)

Define friction ridges. (slide 26) (Ch.6)

Be able to order the two major regions of the dermis. (slide 27) (Ch. 6)

List the structures found in the dermis. (27)

Describe how the dermis and epidermis connect. (slide 28) (Ch. 6)

Describe how nutrients are supplied to the epidermis. (slide 28) (Ch. 6)

Know which layer forms the deeper, major portion of the epidermis. (slide 29) (Ch. 6)

List the functions of the subcutaneous layer. (slide 37) (Ch. 6)

Know the active form of vitamin D. (slide 34) (Ch. 6)

Describe the components of sweat. (slide 35) (Ch.6)

Describe sebum and know the gland that secretes it. (slide 35) (Ch. 6)

Compare and contrast vasoconstriction and vasodilation and how they relate to temperature regulation. (slide 37) (Ch.6)

List the epidermal derivatives. (slide 39) (Ch. 6)

Describe the composition of hair, nails, and exocrine glands. (slide 39) (Ch. 6)

Know how the free-edge and nail body get their color. (slide 40) (Ch. 6)