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What are the basic components of the nervous system?
Glia and Neurons
What is the primary function of glial cells?
To provide support for neurons, which includes nutrition, healing, protection, and physical support.
What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
The fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord that glial cells produce.
What is the function of the blood-brain barrier?
It prevents foreign materials, like some viruses, from entering the brain.
What type of cells are neurons?
Cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system.
What are the parts of a neuron?
Soma, Axon, Dendrites, Axon terminals, Neurotransmitter, Myelin sheath, and Synapse.
What is resting potential in a neuron?
The state of a neuron at rest, typically around -70 millivolts.
What happens during action potential?
A brief reversal of electrical potential that travels along the axon.
What is the all-or-none law?
Once action potential occurs, the neuron either fires or does not fire.
What is a refractory period?
The time after an action potential during which another cannot occur.
How does axon size affect action potential speed?
Larger axons allow for faster action potentials due to less resistance.
What is the function of the myelin sheath?
It insulates axons and allows action potentials to jump from gap to gap.
What is synaptic transmission?
The process by which neurons communicate with each other through chemical signals.
What is the synaptic cleft?
The microscopic gap that separates neurons at a synapse.
What is the role of neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission?
To diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the receiving neuron.
What happens during the release step of synaptic transmission?
Neurotransmitters are released from the synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft.
How do postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) work?
They determine whether the receiving neuron will fire based on their summation.
What are excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)?
PSPs that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing.
What are inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)?
PSPs that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing.
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
A long-lasting increase in the strength of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.
What is synaptic pruning?
The elimination of old synapses that are no longer active.
What is the connection between neurotransmitters and behavior?
Neurotransmitters influence various aspects of behavior, such as muscle movement and mood.
What is an agonist in regards to neurotransmitters?
A substance that mimics neurotransmitter action.
What is an antagonist in relation to neurotransmitters?
A substance that blocks the action of a neurotransmitter.
What neurotransmitter is associated with muscle control?
Acetylcholine (ACh).
What role does dopamine play in the nervous system?
It contributes to the control of voluntary movement and is linked to reward pathways.
What is norepinephrine's function in the nervous system?
It modulates mood and arousal.
What is the role of serotonin?
It regulates sleep, wakefulness, eating, aggression, and is involved in mood regulation.
What is GABA and its significance?
A widely distributed inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of anxiety and sleep.
What are endorphins known for?
Playing a role in pain relief and response to stress.
What does the central nervous system (CNS) comprise?
The brain and spinal cord.
What are the two branches of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the somatic nervous system control?
Voluntary muscles and sensory receptors.
What does the autonomic nervous system control?
Automatic, involuntary functions of smooth muscles, blood vessels, and glands.
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions.
What is the function of the sympathetic division?
It activates the 'fight or flight' response.
What is the function of the parasympathetic division?
It promotes 'rest and digest' activities.
What are the main responsibilities of the hindbrain?
Breathing, muscle tone, and circulation.
What structures are included in the hindbrain?
Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum.
What does the midbrain do?
Integrates sensory information and controls voluntary movement.
What is situated in the forebrain?
Structures that regulate emotion, complex thought, and basic biological needs.
What are the four lobes of the cerebrum?
Occipital, Parietal, Temporal, and Frontal lobes.
What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?
Visual information processing.
What is the primary function of the parietal lobe?
Processing physical sensory information.
What is the primary function of the temporal lobe?
Auditory processing.
What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?
Higher-level executive functioning and motor control.
What is brain plasticity?
The brain's ability to change in structure and function.
What can stimulate brain plasticity?
Experience that leads to changes in synapse formation and dendritic growth.
What is neurogenesis?
The process of generating new neurons in the adult brain.
What role does the corpus callosum play?
It connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.
What does the limbic system involve?
Emotion, motivation, and memory.
What part of the forebrain processes incoming sensory information?
The Thalamus.
What regulates basic biological needs in the forebrain?
The Hypothalamus.
What does Hebbian learning refer to?
The idea that neurons that fire together, wire together.
What is the role of the reticular formation?
It helps regulate sleep, arousal, and perception of pain.
What are efferent nerves responsible for?
Carrying information from the CNS to the periphery.
What do afferent nerves do?
Carry information to the CNS from the periphery.
What is the function of the cerebellum in the hindbrain?
Coordination of movement and equilibrium.
Who discovered the concept of long-term potentiation?
Donald Hebb.
What is the basic role of neurotransmitters?
To transmit signals across the synaptic cleft between neurons.
define conciousness
wareness of internal and external stimuli - Acknowledged by William James
Who was the first theorists to recognize that consciousness consists of varying levels of awareness
Sigmund Freud
what are electroencephalograph (EEG)
devices that measure electrical activity in the brain, used to study different states of consciousness.
what are the different types of brain waves
• Beta – normal waking thought, problem
solving
• Alpha – deep relaxation, meditation
• Theta – light sleep
• Delta – deep sleep
define Circadian rhythms
The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and other animals
• Critical in the regulation of sleep - vary from person to person
define: Chronotype
each individual’s optimal time to fall asleep
Physiological pathway of the biological clock
Light levels → retina → suprachiasmatic
nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus →
pineal gland → secretion of melatonin
define Melatonin
hormone that adjusts the biological clock
Define SCN
master pacemaker that synchronizes
clocks throughout the brain and body
Biological Rhythms
What are the 4 distinct stages of sleep
• Stage N1: brief, transitional light sleep (1–12 min.)
• Stage N2: mixed brain waves with sleep spindles (10–25 min.)
• Stages N3: slow-wave sleep (30 min.)
• Stage 4: REM (progressively longer as cycle through the stages)
what are hypnic jerks
brief muscle contractions
What brain structure is most involved in sleep?
The ascending reticular activating system (RAS)
What does the ascending reticular activating system (RAS) influence?
Physiological arousal through afferent fibers running through the reticular formation.
Which additional brain structures are involved in sleep?
The pons, medulla, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system.
What are the most influential neurotransmitters involved in sleep?
Acetylcholine and serotonin.
Name other neurotransmitters involved in sleep besides acetylcholine and serotonin
Norepinephrine, dopamine, and GABA
What role does GABA play in sleep?
GABA acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, promoting relaxation and sleep.
Which neurotransmitter is known for promoting wakefulness and arousal?
Norepinephrine
Partial sleep deprivation or sleep restriction
When people go with less sleep than usual
Selective deprivation
depriving individuals of specific aspects of the sleep cycle (e.g., REM)
Why We Need Sleep
• Memory consolidation
• Assimilating new memories into existing frameworks
• Learning and problem solving
• Promotes creativity and insight into problems
What are the 3 different patterns of Insomnia
• Trouble falling asleep
• Trouble remaining asleep
• Persistent early morning awakening
What is Narcolepsy
Sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking hours - goes directly into REM sleep from being awake
•Usually lasts a short period of time (10-20 minutes)
What is the main cause of Narcolepsy
loss of orexin neurons in the hypothalamus - treated with drugs
What is Sleep Apnea
• Reflexive gasping for air that awakens the sleeper
• Usually involves loud snoring
• The person stops breathing for a minimum of 10
second
• Interrupts their sleep cycle
• Can cause heart and lung damage
• Declines in attention, memory, and other
cognitive functioning
What is the treatment of sleep apnea
changes to lifestyle (diet and exercise), dug therapy, masks or oral devices to increase airflow, surgery
What are nightmares
• Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening
• Usually occur during REM
• Often recall a vivid dream
• May have difficulty getting back to sleep
• Associated with significant stress
What are Night Terrors
• Intense autonomic arousal and feelings of panic causing abrupt awakening
• Associated with Non-REM sleep
• May let out piercing cry, bolt upright, and stare into space
• Don’t recall coherent dream
• Panic typically fades quickly and little trouble falling back to sleep
what is Somnambulism
• Sleepwalking
• Tends occur during first 3 hours of sleep during slow-wave sleep
• Last a couple minutes to half hour
REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder (RBD)
• Not having sleep paralysis during REM and acting out one’s dreams
• May involve talking, yelling, moving limbs, leaping out of bed
• Can be violent and hurt themselves or bed partner
REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder (RBD) causes
deterioration in brainstem structures that are usually responsible for the paralysis seen in REM
What are dreams
• May involve vivid imagery, be story-like, bizarre, and appear real
• While typically during REM, can also occur during non-REM
Define Day residue
Waking life spillover
What are the theories of Dreaming
1. Wish fulfillment: Sigmund freud- Attempt to fulfill ungratified needs from daily life through wishful thinking in dreams
2. Cognitive problem-solving: Rosalind Cartwright - Dreams provide an opportunity to work through problems of everyday life
3. Activation-synthesis: Hobson and McCarley- Dreams are the side effects of the neural activation that produces “wide-awake” brain waves during REM sleep
What are the two types of dream content
• Manifest = plot of the dream (surface level)
• Latent = hidden or disguised meaning
Define Hypnosis
A systematic method that increases suggestibility, relaxation, focus, and imagination.
Hypnotic susceptibility
individual differences in how easily they can be hypnotized
What are the effects produced through hypnosis
• Anesthesia
• Sensory distortions and hallucinations
• Disinhibition
• Posthypnotic suggestions and amnesia
What are the two main theories of hypnosis
1. Social Cognitive Theory: Role playing
2. Altered State of Consciousness: Dissociation
What is Dissociation
hypnosis splits consciousness into two streams
