AP US Gov. Final Review Topics

electoral college functions & criticisms

• put in place because the founders didn't trust a direct vote by the people

• each state determines elector

• electoral vote for each state= # of representatives + # of senators

• only 2 states use proportional representation: NE & ME

• 270 vote majority needed to win- if tied House breaks tie

• popular vote winner has lost electoral vote only 5 times; in 1824, House decided

• prez candidates MUST focus on BIG swing states in order to win

• do NOT focus on sure wins- it is a waste of time & $$- focus on close races

• criticisms: not truly democratic, more elite democratic (gives out sized voice to some small states regarding senators)

• for: if states are doing shady stuff, it isolates the shadiness

demographics & voting patterns

• latino males more republican, females more democrat (close; little more democrat)

• higher education, more likely to vote

• white=conservative

• black & jewish & asian: democratic

• females (left), men (right)

• teachers (left), manufacturing (right)

• rural & suburban (right), city (left)

signing statements

documents stating what the president thinks of a new law and how it should be enforced

use of vetoes & overriding them

presidential veto: the president can reject a bill passed by Congress; prevents the legislative branch from passing laws that the executive branch finds problematic

• Congress can override a presidential veto with a 2/3 majority vote in BOTH House and Senate

Voting Rights Act of 1965

prevents discriminatory voting laws, requires federal oversight & approvals for new voting laws in some areas & set bilingual voting guidelines

majority-minority districts

district where majority of voters are ethnic minorities

presidential approval rating trends & impact on agenda

at the beginning of a president’s term, they are the most supported and liked and the people are more likely to support their policies and ideals, but by the end of the term, they are much less liked by the public and have a lower approval rating

checks and balances

constitutional ability of multiple branches of government to limit each other’s power

separation of powers

sharing of constitutional authority by multiple branches of government

gridlock

legislative process is stalled due to the inability of lawmakers to reach an agreement on policy decisions; often occurs when different political parties control different branches of government, resulting in a standstill that prevents the passage of new laws or reforms; can reflect deep partisan divides and lead to frustration among constituents who expect action from their elected representatives

cooperative federalism

feds and states share power in many policy areas

dual federalism

feds and states supreme in their own spheres and these are kept seperate

powers of President/ executive branch

• formal: veto/signing legislation into law, commander of chief, appointing judges and other official positions (FBI, federal reserve, ambassadors, cabinet), SOTU address, chief diplomat (head of state), recognize foreign leaders, executive authority (enforce federal laws), direct bureaucracy below them to carry out, pardon/commutation

• informal: bully pulpit, executive agreement (instead of a treaty which is 2/3, just needs majority), executive privilege, signing statements, executive order

powers of Congress

both: pass laws, declare war, create a currency, regulate commerce (power of the purse), providing for national defense (draft), taxing, both have oversight (investigation in government wrong-doings as well as private sector things), oversight, impeachment

-> house: power of the purse (anything taxes and spending starts in the house), need majority to begin impeachment, each state has delegation w/ one vote if tie in presidency, treaty w/ tariff has to start in house

-> senate: confirm/deny presidential appointees (jurists), confirm treaties, in impeachment, they hold trial and vote (2/3), if no one wins electoral college, they choose vp

powers of Supreme Court

• interpreting the meaning of laws

• applying laws to individual cases

• deciding if laws violate the Constitution

• formal power of judicial review

single member district

an electoral district that elects one representative to a legislative body; commonly used in the United States for congressional elections and tends to favor a two-party system, often making it challenging for third parties to gain traction and win seats

liberal ideology

government should intervene in the economy and provide social services to ensure equality and well-being, against restricting private sexual & social behaviors, protect previously disadvantaged groups from discrimination, stricter government control of industry

conservative ideology

government should be small (state/local level), minimum government interference in economy, traditional morality (impose restrictions on contraception, abortion, & same-sex marriage)

block grants

broad grants for general use in a certain policy area (transportation, education, welfare, COVID relief, etc…); huge chunk of $$ for broad purpose

categorical grants

federal grants for specific purposes; funds that must be spent on specific things under fed supervision

Standing Committees

• Permanent committees that handle specific policy areas

• Functions:

  • Review, amend, and vote on proposed legislation

  • Conduct oversight of federal agencies related to their jurisdiction

• Examples:

  • House Ways and Means Committee: Handles tax policy and revenue-related matters

  • Senate Judiciary Committee: Oversees judicial appointments and federal law enforcement

  • House Armed Services Committee: Deals with military policy and defense funding

Select (or Special) Committees

• Temporary committees created for specific purposes, often to investigate or address issues not covered by standing committees

• Functions:

  • Conduct investigations or studies on particular issues

  • Make recommendations but typically cannot propose legislation directly

• Examples:

  • House Select Committee on the January 6th Attack: Investigated the Capitol riot

  • Senate Select Committee on Intelligence: Oversees intelligence operations and activities

Joint Committees

• Committees made up of members from both the House and Senate

• Functions:

  • Conduct studies or oversee areas of shared interest

  • Rarely legislate but provide recommendations and reports

• Examples:

  • Joint Economic Committee: Analyzes economic trends and advises Congress

  • Joint Committee on Taxation: Provides technical advice on tax legislation

Conference Committees

• Temporary committees formed to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of a bill

• Functions:

  • Draft a single compromise bill that both chambers can approve

  • It is composed of members from both the House and Senate

• Example:

  • When the House and Senate pass slightly different versions of a budget bill, a conference committee resolves the discrepancies

Leader of House of Representatives & Powers

House of Representatives:

• Speaker of the House:

  • Presiding officer of the House and leader of the majority party

  • Roles:

    • Sets the legislative agenda

    • Assigns bills to committees

    • Appoints members to committees

    • Represents the House in public and ceremonial duties

• Majority and Minority Leaders:

  • Majority Leader: Helps the Speaker manage the legislative agenda and coordinate party strategy

  • Minority Leader: Leads the opposition and acts as a spokesperson for the minority party

• Whips:

  • Gather votes within their parties and ensure party discipline

Leader of Senate & Powers

Senate:

• Vice President:

  • Officially the President of the Senate but only votes to break ties

• President Pro Tempore:

  • Senior-most senator of the majority party; presides over the Senate in the VP’s absence (largely ceremonial)

• Majority Leader:

  • The most powerful figure in the Senate

  • Roles:

    • Sets the legislative agenda

    • Schedules debates and votes

    • Coordinates party strategy

• Minority Leader:

  • Represents and organizes the minority party in the Senate

• Whips:

  • Similar role as in the House—ensure party discipline and gather votes

summarize the arguments of Fed 51

• the Constitution has checks and balances to prevent government tyranny

• we need a government because society needs rules/organization

• but…we create a government and fill it with imperfect people

• the branches each have unique powers

• when any branch tries to exceed these powers, the other branches are equipped with the power to check

• legislative=most powerful, so it was divided into House & Senate, each w/ unique powers

• power is divided between state and national governments, so if one is overreaching, the other can intervene

summarize the arguments of Fed 70

• overall argument: support ratifying Constitution because it creates a powerful executive that can be checked to prevent tyranny

• weak executive=weak government=bad government

• the executive laid out in the Constitution is unitary, has appropriate duration (length of term), appropriate support, and appropriate power

• benefits of a unitary executive:

  • can act quickly/decisively

  • clear who deserved it/blame

  • impeachment or voting out=easier

  • prevents turmoil in executive

  • factions within executive could lead to more national division

  • executive has the more power possible (won’t do shady stuff)

summarize the arguments of Fed 78

• supports ratifying the Constitution because it creates an independent judiciary w/ appropriate power

• federal jurists serve life terms (except for impeachment)

• constant/reliable decisions- job security will keep the best & brightest- over time, their knowledge grows

• insulated from triangle in political leadership & public opinion

• needs to be able to check legislative and executive excesses

• SCOTUS has judicial review to strike down unconstitutional executive and legislative actions

• SCOTUS not to be feared because it is the weakest branch- it relies on state/executive/legislative to enforce its ruling → budget/taxes & military are more likely to be tyrannical

summarize the principles in the Dec. of Ind.

• declare the colonies separation from Britain and justify their right to self govern by outlining grievances and asserting rights

• core values → consent of the governed, right to revolution self-government

• 1: natural/unalienable rights

• 2: equal opportunity

• 3: republicanism

• 4: social contract & popular sovereignty

• 5: government is limited

• government must protect people’s natural rights

• if government fails → the right to abolish or amend the government

summarize the 2 clauses of the 14th Amendment

Equal Protections Clause: says that a state may not deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws

Due Process Clause: declares that states may not deny any person "life, liberty or property, without due process of law”

summarize the arguments of Brutus l

• claims the US constitution was the framework for government tyranny

• 2 dangerous clauses:

  • necessary and proper clause: grants Congress the flexibility to pass any laws to carry out its powers; used to justify any action

  • supremacy clause: allows federal laws to override state laws and force states to do whatever the national government says

• size of government: national government slowly take state powers and country is so big, representatives can’t do their job

• military: large forces could be used to enforce policies states don’t want to follow

• taxes: national government can tax & erode the power of states to tax

• courts: national courts will make state courts obsolete

list the 5 rights in the 1st Amendment

1. Freedom of religion

2. Freedom of speech

3. Freedom of press

4. Freedom of assembly

5. Freedom to petition

summarize the flaws with the Articles of Confederation

• confederation: loose alliance of states

• state powers: tax, regulate trade, establish courts, carry out national laws

• national government powers: declare war & peace, make treaties, settle state disputes, & ask/beg for

• weaknesses:

  • couldn’t protect natural rights

  • no (power to tax)= no ability to do things

  • no central leadership/president or ability to enforce laws

  • hard to pass laws (9/13) & nearly impossible to amend (13/13)

  • states each had 1 vote in the legislature

  • no uniform currency

  • no ability to regulate trade

summarize McCulloch v. Maryland

• US government opens a branch of 2nd Bank of the US in Maryland

• MD opposed the 2nd Bank’s existence & passed a MD law taxing it

• McCulloch (an employee of the 2nd Bank of US) refused to pay tax & was charged with breaking the law in MD

• Q1: Was establishing a national bank constitutional?

• A1: Yes, the necessary and proper clause makes it a logical step to take to establish a national currency

• Q2: Is Maryland’s tax on the 2nd Bank of the US constitutional?

• A2: No, the supremacy clause prevents states from interfering with US government carrying out constitutional activity

summarize US v. Lopez

• Congress passes the Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 banning guns on school grounds

• justified using the commerce clause

  • guns in school impact education, insurance rates, and tourism

• case: Lopez carries a gun onto school grounds in San Antonio, Texas and is busted

• TX charged him, the feds charge him the next day so TX drops the state charges

• the commerce clause doesn’t justify the passage of the GFSZA because it isn’t commercial activity

• if this logic could stand, the feds could regulate anything

  • it falls to states under police power

summarize Engel v. Vitale

• a NY school district had a policy of beginning the school day with saluting the flag an an optional non-sectarian Christian prayer read over the intercom

• several students & parents who weren’t Christian opposed this and challenged it in court

• yes! reciting a non-sectarian Christian prayer & making it optional does violate the establishment clause of 1A

• being non-sectarian & optional does NOT excuse it

• the school (state) is sponsoring & giving preferential treatment to Christian views/practices

• precedent set-school sponsored prayer=unconstitutional

summarize Wisconsin v. Yoder

• WI state law requires parents to send their children to school until the age of 16; law penalizes the parents for not having kids in school until age 16

• Yoder, an Amish parent, stopped sending his children to school after 8th grade along with other parents

  • they were charged and convicted under WI state law

• yes! WI’s compulsory education law violates the free exercise clause of 1A in regard to Amish students

• while state has an obligation to educate students, and compulsory education is a rational way to attain this, it isn’t appropriate for all students

• the Amish are a well-known religious group w/ defined beliefs

• compelling them to remain in school after 8th grade isn’t necessary in their community or a benefit to society as a whole, and violates their 1st amendment right to freely exercise their faith

summarize Tinker v. Des Moines

• several students organized to wear black armbands to protest the Vietnam War

• the school found out and created a new policy that any student taking part in the protest would be suspended

• some students follow through w/ protest and are suspended

• students challenge in courts, lose, & appeal to SCOTUS

• do students lose the 1A right to speech at school?

• no! student speech at school is protected as long as it doesn't disrupt the learning environment

  • black armbands with peace signs don’t

summarize NYT v. US

• a government contractor compiling a history on US involvement in Vietnam had access to lots of government documents

• those docs indicated the US government lied to the public about US involvement in the war & how successful it was going

• this contractor copied these docs and leaked them to the NY Times

• after NYT released/reported on some of them, Nixon used executive privilege & ordered the NYT not to print the docs

• ?: yes! the government’s efforts to prevent 2 newspapers from publishing classified info did violate the 1A freedom of press

• restricting the press from publishing before the fact= prior restraint

• government has a high burden to meet to justify such restraint

• precedent set-prior restraint is almost always unconstitutional

summarize Schenck v. US

• Congress passes the Espionage Act of 1917 to punish activities that disrupted the draft & other WW2 effort

• Schenck was a socialist who opposed the war

• he distributed pamphlets urging people to resist the draft and argued it was a violation of the 13th Amendment

• Schenck is arrested, charged, & convicted of violating the Espionage Act

• ?: did the Espionage Act violate the 1st Amendment freedom of speech?

• unanimous verdict-no- his speech was not a protest against the draft, but interfered with it

• the draft was constitutional and he had no right to interefere

• government gets more leeway during war

• clear and present danger test created

summarize Gideon v. Wainwright

• Earl Gideon was arrested for breaking into a pool hall and stealing change from a cigarette machine and a bottle of wine

• FL only provides a public defender in death penalty cases

• Gideon asks the judge for a public defender, judges deny bc of FL law

  • Gideon defends himself and is convicted

• Constitutional ?: Does the 6A right to an attorney apply to states in cases not involving death penalty?

• yes! anyone who could afford an attorney would have one as they are a key component of the legal system

• 6th amendment doesn’t limit to capital cases; government must provide defense for all felony cases

summarize Roe v. Wade

• TX law only allowed abortions when the doctor determines it was necessary to save the life of the mother

• an unmarried pregnant women who went by “Jane Roe” to protect her privacy tried to get an abortion in TX and was denied based on TX law

• ?: Is there a constitutional right to privacy, and if so, does abortion fall under this right?

• yes and yes (sometimes)

• the right to privacy extends to marriage, procreation, and contraception (privacy derived from multiple amendments)

• SCOTUS doesn’t determine when a fetus becomes a person, and thus protected by the 14th amendment

• the court ruled that protecting the life of the women and the potentially for life must be considered

• PRECEDENT: 1st trimester- woman has the right to abortion on demand, 2nd trimester- states can impose some restrictions, 3rd trimester- states can impose restrictions up to complete ban

• Now: Dobbs decision returns abortion to a state issue (10th amendment)

summarize McDonald v. Chicago

• the DC v. Heller ruling ruled that the right to bear arms was a private right- NOT tied to service in military/militia

• it ruled that bans on handguns & laws requiring firearms to be rendered inoperable/have trigger locks at home were unconstitutional

• DC is federal jurisdiction (Article 1) and not a state

• Chicago and some of its communities had laws similar to DC

• McDonald sued the morning DC v. Heller was released requesting the ruling apply to the states

• yes! the 2nd amendment does apply to the states bc it is incorporated through the 14th’s privileges/immunities & due process clause

• rights that are fundamental & deeply rooted in the country’s history & tradition are incorporated & applied to the states

• the right to self defense is one of those rights, so 14th incorporates DC v. Heller & 2nd Amendment

summarize Brown v. Board of Education

• in KS, schools are segregated based on race

• Oliver Brown tried to enroll his daughter in a segregated school in Topeka

• she had to walk past several white-only schools to get to her segregated school; she was denied solely based on race

• Constitutional ?: does segregation of public education solely based on race violate the EPC of the 14th Amendment?

• yes! it was a unanimous decision

• the court ignored the quality of education facilities provided

• they focused on the negative psychological impact that segregation had on children

• separate but equal doctrine is inherently unequal

• school segregation violates the 14th’s EPC & is unconstitutional

summarize Citizens United v. FEC

• BCRA made PACs legal: people can donate to them, but corporations and unions cannot within 30 days of a primary election or 60 days of a general election

• Citizens United makes “Hillary: The Movie” and wanted to broadcast it, but some of CU’s $ came from corporations

• FEC said CU’s actions violated the BCRA + prevented movie + ads from airing

• Constitutional ?: Does the BCRA’s limits on corporate/union spending violate the 1-A freedom of speech?

• Answer + Logic: Yes-Corps/Unions are made of people who have speech rights

summarize Baker v. Carr

• Tennessee had not redistricted in 60 years even though US and Tennessee constitutions required it

• Urban districts increased in population, rural districts decreased in population

• Baker argues he is underrepresented in his urban district and thus denied equal protection (14th amendment)

• ?: do the feds have the authority to intervene on redistricting (reserved power of states)?

• A: yes! size of districts is NOT political- it is a constitutional issue

• equal protection clause applies and this opens the door for more cases on redistricting

summarize Shaw v. Reno

• 1990 census & reapportionment gave North Carolina 1 more representative

• NC’s 1st redistricting of maps include 1 major-minority African American district out of 12

• NC submits maps to DOJ/feds as required by Voting Rights Act of 65’

• DOJ/Feds ordered NC to redraw maps w/ 2 majority-minority African American districts

• NC redraws maps accordingly- new district is very snakelike

• Shaw & a group of white voters argue lines drawn based on race violates their equal protections

• the court ruled that redistricting based on race must be held to a standard of strict scrutiny under the EPC

• yes, it was unconstitutional, districts clearly drawn based on race- this violates EPC of 14th Amendment; racial gerrymandering is ALWAYS unconstitutional!

summarize Marbury v. Madison

• Judiciary Act of 1789 creates new judgeship

• Adams appoints & Senate confirms the judges

• Jefferson takes office & commissions of Marbury and several judges are undelivered; orders Madison to not deliver the commissions

• Marbury sues- petitions SCOTUS to issue writ of mandamus to Madison

• Q1: Is Marbury entitled to his commission? Yes

• Q2: Did Marbury take the correct legal path? Yes

• Q3: Is the writ of mandamus in the Judiciary Act of 1789 constitutional? No

• Sets precedent that SCOTUS has judicial review

Shay’s Rebellion

a 1787 rebellion in which ex-Revolutionary war soldiers attempted to prevent foreclosures of farms as a result of high interest rates and taxes

steps EACH branch (+bureaucracy) can take to limit powers of others

Executive on:

• Legislative: veto power, executive orders, public influence (bully pulpit)

• Judicial: appointments, enforcement power, pardon power

• Bureaucracy: appointments, executive orders, budget requests

Legislative on:

• Executive: override vetoes, impeachment, budget control, oversight, treaty rejection, appointment rejection

• Judicial: amend constitution, control jurisdiction, impeach judges, create/restructure courts

• Bureaucracy: funding control, oversight, legislation

Judicial on:

• Executive: judicial review, injunctions (issue orders to halt or modify executive policies)

• Legislative: judicial review, interpretation of laws

• Bureaucracy: review regulations, check agency actions

Bureaucracy on:

• Executive: implementation decisions, professional insulation (may resist political pressure)

• Legislative: regulatory expertise, administrative discretion

• Judicial: interpret regulations, delay compliance (implement rulings at a slow pace)

13th Amendment

abolished slavery

15th Amendment

grants the right to vote for all male citizens regardless of their ethnicity or prior slave status

17th Amendment

allowed for the direct election of US Senators

19th Amendment

granted women the right to vote

22nd Amendment

no person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of President more than once

24th Amendment

abolished and forbids the federal and state governments from imposing taxes on voters during federal elections

25th Amendment

clarifies that the vice president becomes president if the president dies, resigns, or is removed from office by impeachment

26th Amendment

establishes a nationally standardized minimum age of 18 for participation in state and federal elections

commerce clause

grants Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with the Indian tribes; anything under interstate commerce can be controlled by the federal government

role of bureaucracy

• the bureaucracy is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws passed by Congress.

• key functions:

  • Implementation: Execute laws and programs through various federal agencies (e.g., EPA, FDA).

  • Regulation: Create detailed rules and standards to enforce broad legislative policies.

  • Administration: Handle day-to-day government operations (e.g., processing Social Security benefits, tax collection).

  • Policy Advice: Provide expertise and recommendations to lawmakers and the executive branch.

  • Adjudication: Resolve disputes and enforce compliance with federal regulations.

polling - exit, push, tracking

exit poll: conducted immediately outside a polling location as an election indicator

push poll: an organization’s attempts to influence views under the guise of conducting a poll by using loaded language

tracking poll: same poll given at regular intervals and discarding older data

limiting/responding a SCOTUS ruling - Congress, public, bureaucracy, president, states

Congress: pass new laws or amend existing ones to counteract the effects of a ruling, control funding tied to the ruling

Public: pressure campaigns, vote for the representatives that promise to address specific rulings, protest and advocate

Bureaucracy: slow down the execution of policies tied to the ruling, draft administrative rules that align minimally with the ruling (due to regulation interpretation), develop new policies or frameworks to sidestep the ruling

President: influence the implementation of ruling (use discretion in enforcement or prioritize other initiatives), nominate justices with particular views to shift future decisions, issue executive orders that minimize the rulings effects

States: pass state laws that minimize or counterbalance the impact of a ruling, use the power of litigation yo challenge related laws or policies in lower courts to limit the scope of the ruling

impact of media

• Agenda Setting/Gatekeeping – decide which issues are important & present them to public (an extension of this is priming)

• Framing – slant of stories shapes how people think (oil industry creating more jobs vs. pollution)

• Act as Scorekeeper – decide who won debate

• Act as Watchdog – investigative journalism – finding corruption & wrongdoing (Watergate, Abu Ghraib, Blagojevich, IRS Targeting, McDonnell, etc…)

• Link People to Politics – game frame focuses on polling (horse-race journalism) & strategy/tactics, NOT issues or substance

political polarization

growing ideological distance and divide between political parties and their supporters, leading to a decrease in compromise and increased partisanship

summarize the arguments of Fed 10

• supported the Constitution by arguing that a large republic would better control factions, preventing any single group from gaining too much power and ensuring a stable government

• faction: a group of people united by common beliefs that are opposed to the ideas of a larger group

• factions are bad because they can prioritize their own interests over the common good, leading to conflict and instability in the government

• banning factions is bad because it restricts freedom and right to express differing opinions and beliefs

summarize the arguments of Letter from a Birmingham Jail

• the EPC/14th amendment motivated the civil rights because states were continuing to allow discriminatory policies

• we are all American and have the right/responsibility to fight injustice

• “injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere”

• tactic: civil disobedience- make the other side so uncomfortable that they have to confront the issue

• the other side had not negotiated in good faith- purpose was to bring them back to the table to honestly negotiate

• “wait” = never, change had not happened so now was the time

• oppressors never voluntarily give up power- so force it!

• everyone has an obligation to fight against injustice

concurrent, reserved, and enumerated powers

concurrent: powers shared by the feds. and states

reserved: powers given to the states alone

enumerated (delegated): powers given to the federal government alone

amicus curiae briefs

means “friend of the court” - presents arguments in support of a side in a case

libertarian ideology

favor limited government intervention in personal, social, and economic issues (no government inclusion on things)

pork-barrel legislation

laws passed to directly a group and try and win their vote; legislation that gives tangible benefits to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning their votes in return

prospective & retrospective voting

prospective: voting for a candidate because you like his or her ideas for handling issues

retrospective: voting for a candidate because you like his or her past actions in office

process of political socialization

the process by which one’s family and other groups & institutions influence political views

formal vs. informal powers

formal: powers explicitly granted to the president in Article II of the US Constitution

informal: not stated in the Constitution; presidents have claimed these powers as necessary for executing the law

purpose of political parties

• recruit and nominate candidates

• communicate with citizens on issues & mobilize voters (but can’t register)

• run the government

• link different parts of government

• act as opposition party “watchdog”

purpose of interest groups

• IGs pursue issues for the public good, and benefit whether they give time/$

• Most IGs are voluntary, but some professions require IG membership

• People join IGs for one of three incentives

  • Solidarity – people gain reward from being a part of something

  • Material – members gain monetary or service benefits for joining

  • Purposive – have a goal that they feel is in the public’s interest

• Purposive groups are ideological, and often called public-interest lobbies

• Many join IGs due to an event in their lives, a SCOTUS ruling, etc…

• IGs tend to represent those with higher incomes as they have more financial & time flexibility to participate

American With Disabilities Act

prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment, state and local government, public accommodations, commercial facilities, transportation, and telecommunications (also applies to Congress)

delegate, trustee, politico models of representation

delegate: you vote exactly how your constituents want

trustee: public trusts you to make the best decision

politico: pick and choose between the two based on conditions

selective incorporation

the act of the SCOTUS applying a precedent to the lower courts and states

supremacy clause

constitutional provision stating that federal policies supersede those of states

writ of certiorari

an order by a higher court directing a lower court to send up a case for review; petition requesting SCOTUS to hear a case

direct, representative, & participatory democracies

direct: require people to vote on every issue and elect officials; all or most citizens

representative: a government in which leaders make decisions by winning a competitive struggle for popular vote

participatory: all citizens as a whole participate (doesn’t mean on everything); all or most citizens

natural rights

rights that belong to humans due to their nature; such rights do not depend on the laws or customs of any particular culture or government (meant to be universal, fundamental, and inalienable)

bureaucratic discretion/discretionary authority

the extent which bureaucrats can choose to implement policies not spelled out in legislation

Federal reserve & monetary policy

Federal Reserve: in charge of monetary policy

Monetary Policy: the actions of central banks, including the Federal Reserve, to achieve macroeconomic policy objectives such as price stability, full employment, and stable economic growth

Tools of Monetary Policy:

• open market operations (buy in recession, sell in inflation)

• discount rate (decreased in recession, increased in inflation)

• reserve requirements (decreased in recession, increased in inflation)

fiscal policy

the use of government spending and taxation to influence the economy

tools of fiscal policy:

• government spending (increased in recession, decreased in inflation)

• taxes (decreased in recession, increased in inflation)

War Powers Act

passed in 1973 over a presidential veto; law limiting president’s ability to send in US troops without a declaration of war by Congress

Title IX of the Education Amendments to the Higher Education Act of 1965

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 72’: protects against discrimination sex-based in education; similar # of athletic activities, need to be equal in that regard

Higher Education Act of 65’: increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps (amended in 72’ to include Title IX)

Civil Rights Act of 1964

outlawed discrimination by race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, banned unequal voting policies, & segregation in schools, employment, & public facilities

Fair Housing Act of 1968

bans discriminating rent/sales, coercion/threats that interfere with housing rights, & advertising based on race

National Voter Registration Act (Motor Voter)

allows for people to register to vote at the DMV

federalism

the division and sharing of power between the national and state governments

bureaucracy powers

carry out federal law on behalf of the president

rule-making

the power of a bureaucracy to create specific rules to carry out the laws they are assigned to enforce- these rules carry the weight of laws without being passed by Congress

regulatory authority

a governmental body responsible for creating, implementing, and enforcing rules and regulations within a specific industry or area of public policy