UW-Madison - Psych 403 - Vocab 10/11 thru 11/8

Anatomical aspects of the brain

Researchers examine the functions of different parts of the brain and try to determine the physical location and timing of various brain processes

Biochemistry aspects of the brain

Researchers examine the effects of 2 fundamental groups of chemicals: neurotransmitters and hormones

Interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs (biggest bundle is in the brain)

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; regulates homeostatic systems (thirst, hunger, temperature); secretes several hormones (including dopamine)

Hormones

Chemicals produced by your glands that regulate the activities of different body cells (main function is to act throughout the body, stimulating the activity of neurons in many locations in the brain and body at the same time)

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Cortex

Outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input

Neocortex

The outermost part of the cerebral cortex (making up 80 percent of the cortex in the human brain)

Frontal cortex

Brain region in which most conscious thinking takes place

Frontal lobes

Associated with cognitive functioning such as planning, foresight, and understanding; crucial for cognition, planning ahead, anticipating consequences, aspects of emotional experience (empathy, moral reasoning)

Study of brain damage, experiments using brain stimulation, brain imaging

What are the 3 main methods researchers use for learning about how the brain works?

Lesioning

Destroying a piece of the brain

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Uses rapidly changing magnetic fields to temporarily knock out areas of brain activity

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)

A neuroscience technique that passes mild electrical current directly through a brain area by placing small electrodes on the skull (researchers have found that the right frontal lobe, but not the left, is important for making morally relevant decisions)

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain

Tomographs

Very thin slices of the brain

Computed tomography (CT)

A scanning technique using multiple X-rays to construct three-dimensional images

Positronemission tomography (PET)

Tracks the uptake of radioactively labeled glucose to reveal areas of metabolic activity in the brain

Functional magnetic resonance imagine (fMRI)

Uses a powerful magnet to help to detect blood flow in the brain

Blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal

The signal typically measured in fMRI that results from changes in the ratio of oxygenated hemoglobin to deoxygenated hemoglobin in the blood (calculated as a difference in levels of brain activity between experimental conditions or different individuals)

Perfusion imaging

Used in conjunction with diffusion imaging, relies on fast scanning techniques to visualize the transit time of blood through a specific area (more precise measures than BOLD signals)

Characteristics of the amygdala

Aggression, anger, fear, social attraction, sexual responsiveness; (highly active in shy people when they are shown pictures of people they don't know; people with anxiety disorders tend to have an active amygdala at all times, even at rest) links perceptions and thoughts with emotional meaning; role in assessing whether a stimulus is threatening or rewarding

Frontal lobes and neocortex characteristics

Important for higher cognitive functions such as speech, planning, and interpreting the world

When is the left frontal lobe more active?

When a person wants to approach something pleasant

What is the right frontal lobe associated with?

Wanting to approach something pleasant

What is the left frontal lobe capable of?

Promote good feelings and dampen bad ones

What is an especially active left brain associated with?

Emotional stability

What is an especially active right brain associated with?

Neuroticism

Somatic marker hypothesis

Neurologist Antonio Damasio's idea that the bodily (somatic), emotional component of thought is a necessary part of problem solving and decision making

Capers syndrome

Believe family members/friends are imposters due to lack of emotional connection

Cingulate

Cognitive control, error detection, conflict monitoring

Corpus collosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Posterior cingulate

Important for processing information about time and space and in reacting rapidly to threatening situations

Anterior cingulate

Important for the experience of normal emotion and self-control (projects inhibitory circuits into the amygdala)

What may be a result when the anterior cingulate is chronically overactive?

Neuroticism

Prefrontal leucotomy (Moniz)

Small areas of white matter behind each of the frontal lobes were deliberately damaged

Psychosurgery

Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue specifically for altering personality, emotions, or behavior

Prefrontal lobotomy

Psychosurgery in which the connections of the prefrontal lobes of the brain to the rear portions are severed

Persistence

The ability to complete a task in the face of obstacles and in the absence of immediate reward

C-system

Involved in effortful, reflective thinking about the self and others (lateral prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, medial temporal lobe, posterior parietal cortex)

X-system

Involved in effortless, reflexive social thought (ventromedial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, lateral temporal cortex)

Neurotransmitters, hormones

2 important chemicals for behavior

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that allow one neuron to affect, or communicate with, another

Chemicals make them up, enzymes break them down

What make up and break down neurotransmitters?

Personality

What are levels of neurotransmitters related to?

Synapse

Space between two neurons across which impulses are carried by neurotransmitters

Central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord

Endorphins

Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure (operate by blocking transmission of pain messages to the brain)

Monoamine oxide (MAO)

Enzyme that regulates breakdown of neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin (low level of MAO allows these to build up; associated with sensation seeking, extraversion, and criminal behavior)

Dopmaine

Neurotransmitter that impacts our arousal and mood states, thought processes, and physical movement (motivation to action, reward responses)

Dopaminergic systems

Systems affected by dopamine; foundation of plasticity (a general tendency to explore and engage with possibilities)

Nucleus accumbens

A subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction (in the basal ganglia)

Behavioral activation system (go system)

Produces and reinforces the motivation to seek rewards

Serotonin

Important role in the regulation of emotion and motivation

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

Raise serotonin levels in the nervous system (better classified as "antineurotics" than antidepressants; helps people organize behavior and get work done; get along with others, even annoying ones; avoid mood swings/overreactions; stabilize information processing in the brain and slow things down)

Hypothalamus, gonads, adrenal cortex

What structures release hormones?

Epinephrine (adrenaline)

Neurotransmitter in the brain and hormone that is related by the adrenal gland as part of the body's response to stress

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter in the brain associated with responses to stress

Heart speeds up, digestion stops, muscles tense (fight or flight)

What happens when epinephrine/norepinephrine are released into the bloodstream?

Oxytocin

A hormone that is important for mothers in bonding to newborns; emotional attachment and calming; relaxation and reduction of fear ("love hormone")

Testosterone

Male sex hormone, related to aggressive behavior

Cars, sports, victory

What activities can increase testosterone levels?

Violent crime, sexual interest, desire

How does testosterone affect behavior in women?

Anabolic steroids

Synthetic testosterone

Cortisol

Factor of the flight-or-flight response; collective term for glucocorticoid hormones which are released into the bloodstream by the adrenal cortex (people with severe stress, anxiety/depression have chronically high levels of it)

Physiognomic belief

Generic (folk) beliefs that aspects of personality can be inferred from the face

Behavioral genetics

Addresses how traits are passed from parent to child and shared by biological relatives (in traits that differ among individuals) (influence of genes on broad behavior patterns)

Evolutionary psychology

Addresses how patterns of behavior that characterize all humans may have originated in the way these characteristics promoted survival during the early history of the species

Eugenics

The belief that humanity could (and should) be improved through selective breeding

An individual's genes and the environment

Personality is the result of a complex interaction between...

Phenotypes

Observable traits

Genotypes

Genetic makeup of an organism

Monozygotic

Identical twins

Dizygotic

Fraternal twins

Heritability coefficient

Degree to which variance of the trait in the populations can be attributed to variance in genes

(rMZ - rDZ) x 2

Heritability quotient

Allele

Particular variant/form of a gene; most genes have 2 or more alleles

DRD4

Gene that affects development of dopamine receptors (different forms associated with attention-seeking) (associated with risk for ADHD)

40%

Average heritability (twin studies)

20%

Heritability from non-twin studies

Genome-wide association (GWA)

Data concerning hundreds of thousands of genes and patterns of genes in thousands of people are compiled into a computer with information about these peoples' personalities

Difficult and expensive, large numbers of people need to be examined to provide sufficient data; in many analyses performed, results may be merely due to chance

Characteristics of GWAs

Epigenetics

Nongenetic influences on a gene's expression, such as stress, nutrition, etc. (experience, especially in early life, can influence how or whether a gene is expressed during development)

Aggression

Can help a person protect territory, property and mates, and also lead to dominance int he social group and higher status; can also lead to fighting, murder, and war

Altruism

A tendency to aid and protect other people; might help ensure the survival of one's own genes into succeeding generations, an outcome called inclusive fitness

Inclusive fitness

Adaptive benefit of transmitting genes rather than focusing on individual survival

Self-esteem

Evolved to monitor the degree to which a person is accepted by others (sociometer theory)

Sociometer theory

The theory that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors our social interactions and sends us signals as to whether our behavior is acceptable to others

Survival value

Why might have depression evolved?

Pain, crying, seeking social support

What is depression following a social loss characterized by?

Fatigue, pessimism, shame, guilt

What is depression following failure characterized by?

Signal something has gone wrong and must be fixed; risk to chances of reproduction

How are pain and emotional pain beneficial to survival?

Fast life history

Species that live in dangerous circumstances and typically die young

Slow life history

Long-lived species that have a chance for extended protection and nurturing of their offspring

methodology, reproductive instinct, conservative bias, human flexibility, biological determinism or social structure

5 stress tests for evolutionary psychology

Methodology of evolutionary theorizing

Degree to which people are consciously aware of following evolutionary strategies to promote survival and reproduction

Biological reductionism

Everything about the mind can be reduced to biology